The paper investigates the quality of machine translation (MT) and traces its development through two main approaches – Statistical Machine Translation (SMT) and Neural Machine Translation (NMT) – by comparing English-to-Slovak outputs produced by Google Translate. The aim of the paper is to evaluate the quality of MT outputs from the point of view of two typologically different languages – English, a predominantly analytic language, and Slovak, a primarily synthetic language – using a sample of newspaper texts, which are often translated by machine due to their wide vocabulary and varied subject matter. The research results indicate that NMT (obtained in 2023), compared to its predecessor SMT (obtained in 2017), has significantly improved in almost all framework categories. The NMT output is much more fluent, sounding more natural and comprehensible. In contrast, shortcomings can be found in the category of syntactic-semantic correlativeness and lexical semantics. In such cases, neural MT may struggle to select the appropriate fit-in-context meaning; moreover, these lexemes can further shift the meaning of the entire sentence, clause, or even utterance.
The text analyses the verbal means by which communicators, especially members of the younger generation, express their evaluative attitudes towards various types of denotations in the electronic communication environment. These linguistic means are divided according to the types of evaluation into ambiguous in meaning, allowing different interpretations depending on the context, and further into means expressing positive and negative evaluation. The author’s primary focus is on the predominant English-derived elements, encompassing both single words and phrases, as well as English sentences in their original form. The majority of these words are currently used slang neologisms, which are characterised by expressiveness, economy of expression, linguistic creativity, and a striving for originality. It is also important to consider motivation and the methods used in relation to the specific characteristics of communication in the online environment.
This study investigates the adaptation of the Mistral 7B large language model for the Slovak language, addressing the limited availability of high-quality open-source models for low-resource languages. While commercial models like GPT-4 and Claude exhibit strong Slovak proficiency, their proprietary nature restricts transparency and customization. To overcome this, we fine-tuned the open-weight Mistral 7B model using the Araneum Slovacum VII Maximum corpus (5.3 billion tokens), creating a specialized Slovak variant, Mistral-SK-7b. The training, conducted on the Leonardo supercomputer (10,000 GPU hours), yielded significant improvements: the fine-tuned model generates grammatically correct and contextually coherent Slovak text, eliminating the errors (code-switching, repetition loops, and lexical interference from other languages) observed in the original Mistral-7B-v0.1. The resulting model, released under the Apache 2.0 license, provides a publicly accessible resource for Slovak NLP applications while preserving the base model’s multilingual capabilities. Our work demonstrates the feasibility of adapting state-of-the-art LLMs for linguistically underrepresented languages and underscores the role of open models in promoting digital language preservation.
The objective of the article is twofold: first, to employ the knowledge of the recurrence of low-frequency words in authorial texts; and second, to prevent the misuse of this knowledge. Contrary to the prevailing authorship attribution theory and practice (Evert et al. 2017, Juola 2008), our research has revealed that the personal linguistic profile is not primarily composed of frequent words with grammatical functions. Instead, we have identified that a distinct set of full-meaning words defines an individual’s linguistic profile (Faltýnek 2020, Faltýnek – Matlach 2021). An examination of these meanings reveals an individual’s unconscious language habits and, consequently, their personality settings. Such personal profiling is referred to as “deep content” and “deep sentiment analysis”. The innovation in question has the potential to facilitate a novel form of linguistic personalization in digital communication, one that has not been previously observed or utilized. The main aim of this article is to describe the algorithm to conduct single-person linguistic deep content and deep sentiment profiling and personalization. We will describe technical steps to provide such a form of digital communication processing and to facilitate the adjustment of a text targeted at an individual, described as a System and method for adapting text-based data structures to text samples (Patent No.: US11797753B2, Faltýnek et al. 2023). This algorithm can be used to (a) produce a personal linguistic profile (analogically to psychometrics instruments such as NEO-FFI Big Five, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)), (b) target digital communication to an individual by “translating” a text to their language (i.e. linguistic habits) and stimulate desired feelings to a predetermined content. The algorithm is, however, also designed (c) to be used to avoid procedures (a) and (b) using any kind of digital communication platform by an individual. This algorithm is implemented in the software Cloakspeech (Faltýnek – Benešová – Kučera 2025), which provides personalization of AI-generated texts: AI speaks like a particular person.
Creating comprehensible documents for asylum seekers from Arabic-speaking regions presents a challenge due to differences in legal cultures, institutionally established norms, and vastly different social and cultural backgrounds. Such materials should consider the recipients’ level of understanding within their social context, cultural conventions, and the diverse connotations of terms used. This article examines selected features of original Slovak legal documentation on migration and asylum seekers translated into Arabic, alongside its updated and revised version developed within the framework of the RESPLAIN project. It also explores ways to simplify Arabic legal language for recipients from diglossic Arabic-speaking environments arriving in Slovakia, where understanding complex legal texts in Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) cannot be taken for granted.
The article introduces the Greek anatomical term κόλον in the context of its internal structure and etymological relations in other Indo-European branches. The studied anatomical terms are widely discussed from the point of view of their semantics. The second part follows the fate of Greek κόλον, when it was adapted into other languages, first into Latin. The Latin adaptation colon , reinterpreted as the indeclinable n- stem, became an integral part of medieval medicine terminology. From Latin, it was adapted into French, and later into English. Finally, the most frequent medicine term consisting of colon is discussed, namely, two variants of the compound coloscopy vs. colonoscopy .
The paper explores the concept of literary style, examining its multifaceted and diverse character, which is characterised by the presence of multiple linguistic (and cultural) codes. The manner in which these codes are selected and utilised serves to construct the recipients as subjects who possess (or lack) specific knowledge, experiences, and attitudes. The issue is illustrated with three examples from contemporary Czech detective fiction, since this genre often stresses regional, historical or ethnic specifics. Jaroslav Velinský employs a substantial amount of non-standard Czech in his novels, incorporating colloquialisms and slang words to accentuate the local, social and temporal setting of the narration. Furthermore, the assumption is made that the recipient is familiar with the various cultural codes that exist. In the context of Petr Eidler’s novels, it is notable that the use of elements of the Czech Jewish ethnolect serves to recall the tradition and tragic past of the Jewish community. This contributes to the texts evoking a sense of otherness and exclusivity. (3) The detective stories penned by Jan Sagitarius are set in the environs of Těšín, Silesia. The use of the local dialect is nuanced, serving to demonstrate the distinctiveness of the region and to differentiate the characters’ positions. Eidler and Sagitarius construct the recipient as a subject to whom the codes used are not applicable.
The author’s research objective is to describe the phenomenon of communicative egalitarianism. The article presents remarks on contemporary nominative practices within national communities that recognize inclusivity as a social and linguistic value. The author addresses the question of how communicative practices in contemporary Polish reflect the egalitarian and identity-related tendencies characteristic of current public discourse. An important conceptual clarification introduced in the article concerns the distinction between non-discriminatory language and egalitarian language . The former is applied to members of different racial or ethnic groups within a dominant community, while the latter is primarily used in reference to women within a male-dominated public discourse. The article is organized into four thematic sections, each corresponding to a distinct communicative domain: 1) Institutional communication grounded in respect for the addressee; 2) Communication respecting sexual and romantic orientation; 3) Communication acknowledging and respecting femininity; 4) Communication sensitive to neurodiversity. The author conducts a reconnaissance of spoken and written language practices corresponding to these four categories. The first category encompasses practices related to the use of noun doublets referring to persons, collective nouns, and various forms of linguistic neutralization. In written communication, this includes the use of keyboard symbols such as the underscore (_) and the slash (/), which serve as graphic markers of gender inclusivity. This group also includes initiatives such as the Jasnopis project, which promotes clarity, accessibility, and inclusivity in public and institutional communication. The second category includes the use of noun endings such as -e and -u , as well as the verbal inflectional particle -u employed as an alternative to gender-marked verb forms. These morphological strategies serve to neutralize grammatical gender and promote greater inclusivity in reference to individuals of diverse sexual and romantic orientations, x-forms, xatives, dukaisms, personatives. The third category comprises feminine noun forms and feminatives, which serve to linguistically represent and affirm women’s presence and agency within public and professional discourse. The fourth category includes expressions that distance the description from the individual, favoring person-first formulations such as a verbally diverse person or a person with neurodivergent experience .
The present study focuses on the identification and characterisation of manifestations of quasi-inclusive communicative behaviour in the context of the mediasocial environment. The text emphasises the pivotal function of social media in the process of mediating social reality, a phenomenon that is intrinsically linked to alterations in communication practices that are influenced by the logic inherent in media. It is imperative to emphasise the significance of elucidating the fundamental characteristics of media reality, which serves as a conducive milieu for the cultivation and augmentation of quasi-inclusive communication practices. The concept of quasi-inclusiveness in relation to network communication is interpreted in two aspects: The first result is due to the pragmatization (instrumentalisation) of inclusive comprehensibility, as demonstrated through the analysis of media-scientific communication. The second result is a communication strategy, as demonstrated through the analysis of media-political communication. Drawing upon an analysis of media-scientific and media-political communications, the study interprets the key attributes of quasi-inclusive communicative behaviour. In the current socio-cultural context, such behaviour is perceived as an effective mode of interaction and is gradually becoming a communication trend beyond just social media. The study indicates a substantial shift in the manner in which experts and political figures engage with the general public, whereby quasi-partner communication, founded on quasi-inclusive communicative techniques, assumes a predominant role. This prompts further inquiry into the mounting influence of populism in social praxis, as it seamlessly integrates into public discourse, influenced by the forces of entertainment culture and intellectual simplicity.
The present paper examines the variability of the Czech phraseme sednout/chytit na vějičku [meaning: to deceive someone, lit.: to sit/to catch someone on a decoy], as well as the use of the Czech word vějička [decoy] in a metaphorical sense. The material that was analysed consists of a series of corpus examples relating to the Czech phraseme sednout/chytit na vějičku . The corpora employed for this study were Totalita and SYN v13. The research method employed in this paper is the typology of multi-word expressions (Hnátková et al. 2018) and the typology of phraseme variability (Jelínek et al. 2018). The present study seeks to identify the types of variability that can be identified for the Czech phraseme under study. The analysis revealed the presence of different types of phraseme variability. A case of morphological variability was documented, namely the quite common use of the Czech noun vějička [decoy] as a part of the phraseme in the plural. The noun vějička can be further developed, sometimes with great richness, with attributes, which is an example of syntactic variability. The lexical variability is manifested both by the use of different verbs that can form the phraseme under study (e.g. sednout [to sit], chytit [to chatch]) and by their variants (e.g., sedat , chytat ). The Czech expressions skákat/skočit na vějičku [to jump on a decoy] and naletět na vějičku [to fly on a decoy] are synonymous. These verbs can be regarded as further examples of lexical (verbal) variability of the phraseme under study. The corpus examples furthermore offered various types of pleonastic expressions, of which the phraseme under study became a constituent.
The nascent Slovak inclusive interactive stylistics has the ambition of interconnecting a thoroughly anchored theory on the selection of language means in structurally defined abstract language styles with considerations of the preferred alternative in the spectrum of their communication applications in the context of 21st-century liberal Europe. It is imperative to establish stylistics that serve to neutralise violence in interpersonal communication, thereby promoting practices and norms of humanised communication grounded in the principles of equality, freedom, and the full self-realisation of engaged individuals within a participatory society. It is evident that pragmatic concepts play a pivotal role in facilitating a novel, inclusive interaction stylistics. These concepts are designed to negotiate and ratify the meaning of verbal interactions in conversations, while preserving the partner’s face (in polite communication). Additionally, they draw upon stimuli from context--dependent discourse analysis and communication theory.
The article sets out to examine the relationship that exists between the communicative sphere of everyday (primarily spoken) communication and the sphere of literary communication. The problematic concept of “colloquial style” is arguably not appropriate for association with either ordinary informal dialogues or dialogues of characters in artistic texts. The stylistic features of unprepared spoken communications are always selectively transferred to an artistic text, thereby representing a “stylised spontaneity” which is incorporated into the structure and singular style of a literary work. The potential for such a transfer is explored in this article through an analysis of two recently published Czech novels. In Alice Horáčková’s novel Rozpůlený dům [The Split House], the dialogues are primarily characterised by Czech-German multilingualism, combined with the typical devices of Common Czech (marginally also dialect) and lexical expressivity. In Simona Bohatá’s novel Klikař Beny [Beny the Lucky], multilingualism is only superficially represented, with the text predominantly featuring Common Czech and a colloquial vocabulary comprising slang, expressive words, vulgarisms and Germanisms. The transfer of the characteristics of ordinary communication into the sphere of art is characterised in the conclusion from the functional point of view. Furthermore, the issue of how to evaluate the stylised use of time-conditioned slang is raised.
The article employs multimodal socioscientific communication to illustrate how the concept of inclusivity is portrayed in the multimodal online stylistic interaction of creators and recipients. The text subsequently provides a concise exposition of socioscientific communication within a virtual environment, with a particular emphasis on its defining characteristic of inclusiveness. This phenomenon is interpreted as an effect that emerges from a specific configuration of the interacting creator with recipients, media and stylistic qualities that are related to the clarity of the content and the politeness of the actors of the given communication. The initial points are illustrated through the interpretation of the multimodal socioscientific communication of the influencer Vedátor from the social network Instagram. The author’s interpretations are combined with the interpretations of language users that were collected during qualitative research. This provides a more nuanced understanding of verbal-nonverbal interaction in a virtual environment. The present study contributes to the ongoing discourse surrounding the specifics of multimodal (socioscientific) communication in relation to the stylization process and its product.
The present study aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge on style-forming factors in Czech and Slovak functional stylistics, with a particular focus on their configuration in texts. The authors propose that style-forming factors should be defined as elements that: Firstly, they are derived from the communicative situation and its components. Secondly, they are associated with a set of expressive means in the minds of community members. Thirdly, they influence both the production and reception of the text. In the context of subjective style formation, authors have distinguished between individual and group factors, the latter encompassing factors such as the author’s affiliation to a social group, particularly one characterised by age or gender. The present authors posit that functional styles emerge from a configuration of style-forming factors that reflect the individual components of a communicative situation that is considered typical for a given functional style. The relationship between these components and text style is indirect, with the norms of functional styles and their age- and gender-related varieties serving as mediators. This theoretical framework facilitates a more comprehensive analysis of the interplay between style-forming factors, functional style, and style norms. It also enables the study of the transformation of functional style norms, thereby integrating stylistics with variational and interactional sociolinguistics.
The linguistic situation in interwar Norway and Czechoslovakia had several parallels. The official languages in both countries were represented by two written standards: Norwegian in the form of Bokmål and Nynorsk, and, in Czechoslovakia, Czech and Slovak – separate but closely related languages that were officially referred to as the Czechoslovak language. At the same time, both countries adopted spelling norms during this period to gradually unify the language variants. In Norway, this process took the form of a mutual approximation of Bokmål and Nynorsk, while in Czechoslovakia, it primarily involved bringing Slovak closer to Czech. Both the Norwegian spelling reform of 1938 and the Rules of Slovak Orthography of 1931 caused controversy. Moreover, during the Second World War, both Norway and the newly established Slovak Republic – at that time Nazi Germany’s allies – introduced revised spelling rules: the Norwegian Spelling Reform of 1941 and the Rules of Slovak Orthography of 1940. This article focuses on these wartime reforms and explores the impact of political changes on language planning. Through comparative analysis, it seeks to identify the elements, approaches, or ideas that may connect the new rules despite the different linguistic natures of the analysed languages.
The study focuses on the semantics and linguistic pragmatics of the expression both ( obidvaja , obidva , obaja , oba , obe , obidve , obidvoje , oboje ), which in Slovak can be classified as numerals, and marginally even as deictic parts of speech. The interpretation focuses on the aspects of following and varying the principles of maximality, homogeneity and salience. We point out that the cognitive definition of paired, generic and quantitatively bound multiplicity is strongly anchored in Slovak. In addition to the synthetic method, the singularity – multiplicity opposition is realized through lexical intervention with special lexical means. According to the nature of the composition of entities and lexical-semantic types of nouns, plurality is formed by word combinations of numerical, paired, set-based, generic and quantitatively defined multiplicity. From the point of view of logical semantics, the expressions behave not only as determiners of uncertainty, but also as generalized, general, existential and floating quantifiers. From the point of view of linguistic pragmatics, the analyzed expressions are egocentric. Due attention is therefore paid to the concept of ʻ both ʼ in the context of the speaker’s verbal actions, relational projections and plurality of word combinations.
The contribution presented here is a partial publication output that follows logically from the implemented project of inclusive stylistics. It embodies its didactic-methodical constituent, which is oriented towards the implementation and evolution of the principles of inclusive language and inclusive stylistics within the context of school education in Slovak language classes, with a particular emphasis on communicative-stylistic education. In this phase of the research, the primary objective is to substantiate the necessity for the incorporation of Slovak as a mother tongue in the school environment, in light of the discernible escalation in degressive tendencies within society. Additionally, this phase aims to elucidate anti-inclusive factors in communication. In the text of the contribution, we advocate for forms of inclusion that are more broadly understood and intuitive, as opposed to their formalised and largely indoctrinated variants. This approach is intended to enhance the humanising effects of communication and practical stylisation.
Political communication is one of the socially relevant forms of public communication. Political style is characterized by being strategic and success-oriented (the goal is to influence public opinion or create a certain ideological climate). However, by engaging in the disinformation discourse, persuasion is marked by an increased degree of communicative manipulation. A manipulative communication style is characterized by a specific instrumentalization of language. The analysis of communication style focuses on the development of the topic of so-called “liberal fascism,” which, as a term, is the target of public criticism. The effectiveness of political communication is ensured by the overall stylistic shaping of texts, meaning that attention is primarily focused on the ways of presenting the speech and creating suitable (interpretative) conditions for achieving a certain effect. The aim of this paper was to analyse the methods of manipulation in political communication, which are developed in all of its aspects, i.e. at the level of the content, at the level of self-presentation, at the level of relationship and at the level of appeal.
The present paper aims to develop the theoretical concept of inclusive persuasion. A fruitful moment for reflection on inclusivity in persuasion is the acknowledgement that a difference of opinion—and the accompanying psychological moment of resistance on the recipient’s side—is an inherent component of persuasive activity. In the present paper, further anti-inclusive factors in persuasion are identified (situation, social hierarchy, ego and personality orientation of the interactants, etc.) that can be, to a certain extent, neutralised through the adoption of an inclusive persuasive style. The present paper draws upon psychological accounts of persuasion (Grác 1985; Rosenberg 2019) to posit the notion that legitimate persuasion is an interaction in which both the persuader and the persuadee manifest and actively assert their agency, in accordance with the principle of participant involvement. The objective of the present paper is twofold: firstly, to provide a linguistic account of inclusive persuasion and, secondly, to demonstrate selected linguistic and communicative acts that contribute to the inclusive stylization of persuasive interaction. Furthermore, we interpret inclusive persuasion, in accordance with F. Miko’s (1982) framework, as a form of value-based communication, and address the following questions: What are the factors that contribute to the value conveyed through persuasive communication? What values guide the communicative behaviour of participants in inclusive persuasive interactions? How do participants exert value-based influence on one another through persuasive communication?
