Although there are numerous research findings on Dongjing, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty, little attention has been paid to its sonic environment. From the perspective of soundscape, we can discern the interrelationships between sounds, environment, and human beings. In the descriptions of Dongjing's natural sounds in Northern Song literature, the most prominent keynote sounds are the warbling of orioles and the chirping of cicadas. The warbling of orioles endowed the capital with a sense of beauty and peace, with Ouyang Xiu's (sic)(sic)(sic) portrayal of the oriole sounds in Dongjing being particularly noteworthy. Meanwhile, the chirping of cicadas gave rise to a polyphonic soundscape of the capital. The sounds of orioles and cicadas are directly connected with the capital and imperial power in Northern Song literature. Through layered texts and intertextual references, the warbling of orioles and the chirping of cicadas become markers of daily life in Dongjing, symbols of the capital's environment, and catalysts for the authors' emotions. These pervasive sounds create a sense of space through their extensibility. The depictions of Dongjing's keynote soundscape in Northern Song literature have enabled readers from the Song Dynasty to the present day to "hear" the capital. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the world and ourselves, it is necessary to delve deeply into the soundscapes present in literature.
Wandering knights-errant (youxia (sic)1) arose from the capital city's multiculturalism. The image of wandering knights-errant in Tang poetry most typically embodies the interactive relationship between individuals and the space of the capital city. Through their acts of "wandering" (you (sic)), these knights-errant not only broke the physical barriers between different spaces but also connected private and public spaces, thereby socially transcending class divides. They were not only observers but also contributors to the capital city's landscape, enriching its aesthetic dimensions. The image of wandering knights-errant in literary works represents a fusion of worldly desires and idealistic splendor. Wandering knights-errant exhibited traits such as valuing profit over righteousness while also aiding the distressed; they could also be extravagant and indulge in their desires. When defying prohibitions with martial prowess, they disrupted order; yet, when serving as vanguards for the monarchy, they became defenders and beneficiaries of privileges. Behind these contradictions lies the complex and unique relationship between the image of wandering knights-errant and the space of the capital city. The image of wandering knights-errant in Tang poetry expands the space of the capital city, both geographically and psychologically, and completes the personification of the capital city.
In the Tang Dynasty,a vast and structurally stable transportation-literature triangle existed among Chang'an,Lingnan,and Yangzhou.This triangle was formed by these three cities and the transportation routes connecting them.First,this triangle was a transportation framework,shaping the movements of literati and facilitating their creation of travel-related literary works,thereby possessing a powerful literary production function.Second,this triangle was a spatial structure for Tang literature,providing a foundation for studying the creative contexts of related works and interpreting their textual meanings.This framework also enabled examining the multiple literary connections among Chang'an,Lingnan,and Yangzhou.By studying the movements of literati within this transportation triangle and the dissemination of literature along the routes,it is possible to conduct research into the geographic attribution of literary works and the practice of poetic exchanges in different locations.On a deeper level,this examination reveals how the opening of north-south transportation routes influenced literary transformations,providing insights into the spatial distribution and hierarchical structure of Tang literature.Thus,this transportation-literature triangle holds significant literary value on multiple levels.
This article is based on the painting named Competition on the Jinming Pool (sic) attributed to Zhang Zeduan (sic) of the Song Dynasty, which is the earliest known realistic depiction of the Jinming Pool among the existing paintings. Although smaller in scale than Along the River during the Qingming Festival (sic), it more fully reflects the rich connotations of the imperial capital from multiple angles and at multiple levels. By comparing the painting with relevant literary works, the "loong boat competition" activities held on the Jinming Pool (sic) during the Shangsi Festival in the Northern Song Dynasty are examined through three interrelated spaces-the performance space on the water, the imperial ritual space, and the space for the leisure of scholars and commoners- to explore Northern Song literati's narratives of the imperial capital. These three spaces are closely interconnected: They maintain clearly defined boundaries while also embodying the dynamics between viewing and being viewed. This makes Competition on the Jinming Pool more typical than Along the River during the Qingming Festival in representing the rich connotations and political-cultural transformations of the capital. The performance space on the water, through depictions of naval exercises, water entertainments, purification rituals during the Shangsi Festival, and prayers for rain, directly reveals shifts in national policy and state ceremonies. The imperial ritual space is presented through the deliberate absence of the sovereign's figure in the composition, which hints at the public or concealed/private monarch-subject dynamics and political semiotics encoded in activities such as practicing archery, attending banquets, appreciating flowers, fishing, and composing poetry in response to one another. The space for the leisure of scholars and commoners, depicted through group portraits and distinctions in attire, impressionistically constructs typical scenes of the Jinming Pool as a site of elegant gatherings of literati and urban romance. A variety of literary forms record all of this, thereby confirming and enriching the visual language and presentation of the painting.
It is commonly believed that the exaggeration and embellishment in Han epideictic rhapsodies (dafuik!Ji) are closely related to the Han literati's praising the unification and unprecedented strength of the Han court. Recent academic discussions on the relationship between Han epideictic rhapsodies and local gazetteers suggest that the exaggeration and embellishment in Han epideictic rhapsodies are also influenced by factors from local and regional perspectives. This influence is reflected not only in writing techniques and materials but also in the perspectives and positions of expression. The exaggerated and embellished style of Han epideictic rhapsodies is primarily linked to the regional backgrounds of early authors, who hailed from the Six States and often served various feudal lords. It may also have drawn inspiration from the localized, homeland-celebrating tendencies of regional gazetteer writing. The exaggeration and embellishment in Han epideictic rhapsodies simultaneously embody their local characteristics; the combination of these two aspects has a certain impact on the concurrent practices and effects of collecting poetry to understand the customs.
During the Ming and Qing dynasties, literati exhibited a distinct collective trend, with regional literary societies emerging as a prominent cultural phenomenon. These local literary societies endeavored to safeguard their literary sanctuaries, construct local literary genealogies, form regional literary discourses, and enhance the status of grassroots literature. They left behind a wealth of works. It is essential to consider regional societies as a significant part when researching Ming and Qing poetry and prose, study the numerous literati and their creations within the context of grassroots writing, and reproduce the literary scenes and landscapes of specific regional spaces. By doing so, one can understand the particular mechanism in the development of Ming and Qing poetry and prose. This approach is essential not only for the study of Ming and Qing literature but also for shifting the research of Chinese literature history from a focus on temporal dimensions, macro perspectives, texts, and mainstream development to taking a more balanced consideration of time and space, macro and regional contexts, texts and experiences, and the interplay between mainstream and peripheral narratives.
The blending of the southern and northern literary styles is one of the major characteristics of the literary circle of the Yuan Dynasty. After the Mongols conquered the Jin and extended their rule over the northern regions, and before they achieved the unification of the state in the Yuan Dynasty, due to the prolonged separation between the Song regime in the south and the Jin regime in the north, characterized by limited cultural exchange, divergent scholarly traditions, and different geographical conditions, the academic backgrounds of literati in the south and the north differed, and so did the focuses of their poetry and prose. The northern literary circle inherited the tradition of the Jin Dynasty, and the southern literary circle inherited the tradition of the Song Dynasty. They each cultivated a distinctive literary style. After Kublai Khan (sic)(sic)!1, the first emperor of the Yuan Dynasty, commissioned Cheng Jufu (sic)(sic)(sic) to seek talent in the Jiangnan region, with southern scholars, such as Zhao Mengfu (sic), Zhang Bochun (sic)(sic)(sic), and Yuan Jue (sic)(sic), entering the Yuan court, a large number of southern scholars migrated north. The Hanlin National History Academy (sic)f*(sic) (sic)(sic) and Kuizhang Hall (sic)(sic)(sic) became vibrant hubs where northern and southern scholars, famous officials, and literati from various ethnic backgrounds mingled. As northern literati, such as Yao Sui (sic)(sic) and Lu Zhi ](sic), journeyed south, the enhanced exchanges between northern and southern scholars further promoted the blending of northern and southern literary styles. As a result, the literary circle of the Yuan Dynasty gradually formed a grand literary style characterized by its simplicity, inclusiveness, majesty, tranquility, elegance, and harmony.
Examining Huizhou culture provides a deeper understanding of the relationship between regional culture and ancient Chinese literature. The concept of “regional culture” primarily refers to the sum of various cultural elements, including ideas and local customs, that form within a specific geographical space and accumulate over time, possessing unique characteristics. Based on this, several key issues regarding the relationship between regional culture and literature should be clarified: first, the isomorphic relationship between regional culture and literature; second, cultural downward diffusion and grassroots literary creation; third, economic support and cultural context; and fourth, elite consciousness and local perspectives. These issues pertain not only to the relationship between regional culture and literature but also involve the expansion of literary research spaces and the understanding of the landscape of literary history.
The regional cultural characteristics reflected in "Ballads from the States" of Book of Songs (sic)(sic)Q) is a classic topic and also a hotspot in modern research on Book of Songs. However, existing studies on the regional cultures of "Ballads from the States" have yet to address its relationship with folk customs. Unlike Songs of Chu **(sic), "Ballads from the States" exhibits a consistent cultural style. This comparison is often interpreted as indicating that Chu had a unique culture, with its people being superstitious and favoring shamanistic practices, while the northern states were seen as a cohesive entity with simple folk customs. The 15 states where these ballads were collected span from present-day Shaanxi to Shandong. Each area should have its own distinct folk customs and religious beliefs. However, these characteristics are not reflected in "Ballads from the States." The reasons for this likely relate to the cultural traditions of the northern feudal states. Specifically, the northern feudal states emphasized the feudal clan system, refined language, and rejected local supernatural beliefs. Although these ballads moved beyond the court to celebrate the joys and sorrows of daily life, they continue to uphold the tradition of refined language and culture.
The "special form of Huajian Lyric" (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic) stands in contrast to the "original form of Huajian Lyric" (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic). The definition of the connotation of "special form of Huajian Lyric" should begin with its subject matter and content, followed by an examination of its stylistic features and techniques. The originator of the "special form of Huajian Lyric" was Huangfu Song (sic)(sic)(sic), and its main body consists of a group of Lyrics of Local Customs in Nanyue (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), comprising 35 lyrics by five lyricists across three generations. Among them, Li Xun (sic)(sic) is the representative lyricist of Lyrics of Local Customs in Nanyue. The rise of Lyrics of Local Customs in Nanyue was an important literary phenomenon during the late Tang Dynasty and Five Dynasties, closely connected with the trade exchanges between Shu (sic) and Yue (sic) regions at the time. Trade between Shu and Yue was relatively frequent in the late Tang and Five Dynasties, with both water and land routes. As a result, literati from the Shu region were able to travel to Nanyue, where they were inspired by the unique scenery of Lingnan (sic)(sic). This altered the traditional prejudices toward Lingnan and introduced fresh subject matter into Huajian Lyric while also prompting a new understanding of the image of women in Nanyue, thereby breaking through the conventional representations of women in Huajian Lyric. The "Bamboo Branch Lyric" (sic)(sic)(sic), a form of folk song in Bashu (sic)(sic), which was transmitted to Lingnan via the Shu-Yue trade routes, influenced the Lyrics of Local Customs in Nanyue in terms of content, form, and musical style.
Xie Lingyun's i(sic)z "Rhapsody on Dwelling in the Mountains" LLI)(sic) is not only a remarkable literary achievement but also holds significant value in the theoretical discourse on ancient Chinese shanshui LLI7( (landscape) aesthetics. It expands the subjectobject relationship within this aesthetic tradition: Instead of mere contemplation, which became prevalent in the pre-Qin and Han periods, it presents a subject-object relationship that integrates the enjoyment of dwelling and roaming with aesthetic appreciation, reflecting the thoughts on the body-mind relationship and the nature-principle relationship within shanshui aesthetics. The aesthetic distance in the "Rhapsody on Dwelling in the Mountains," neither too close nor too far, deviates from the rhapsody tradition and the established custom of mountain dwelling. This rhapsody expresses the viewpoint centered on "attaining intention" (sic)1 c and "delighting the heart" (sic)L, pioneering a self-fulfilling space (sic)1 c t(sic) transcending and yet grounded in the mundane world, thus influencing the depiction from the subjective spirit in subsequent shanshui aesthetics.
The incorporation of landscapes into art signifies a profound transformation in the aesthetic relationship between human and nature, shifting the focus of human aesthetic appreciation from the utilitarian realm to the non-utilitarian realm, from humans and animals to plants and landscapes. This represents a revolutionary moment of decisive significance in the history of human aesthetics. The emergence of landscape art does not merely signify a significant transformation in aesthetic objects and artistic themes. More importantly, the appreciation of natural landscapes marks a new stage in human aesthetic activities—an aesthetic consciousness of nature. Both the Wei-Jin period in China and the Renaissance in Europe contributed to the creation of landscape culture, with Chinese landscape culture giving birth to shanshui 山水 (landscape) aesthetics. However, the concept of shanshui in Chinese differs from the European notion of landscape. The ethicalization of aesthetic appreciation of nature in China helps shape the bland and plain national characteristics of Chinese shanshui aesthetics, providing a paradise for the poetic dwelling of the soul and becoming the fundamental development direction of Chinese shanshui aesthetics. The shanshui aesthetics developed in China prior to the Western cultures stands as the most ethnically distinctive aesthetic heritage, holding cross-temporal significance in global aesthetics.
Shanshui (sic)(sic) (landscape) poetry of Wang Wei (sic)(sic)and Meng Haoran (sic)(sic)(sic) primarily utilizes five-character lines, while poets like Gao Shi(sic)(sic), Cen Shen(sic)(sic), and Wang Changling (sic)(sic)(sic) seldom employed seven-character lines for shanshui themes. However, Li Bai (sic)(sic), even before the rebellion of An Lushan and Shi Siming, extensively adopted various genres, such as five-character ancient-style poetry (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic), five-character rhythmic poetry (sic) (sic) (sic)(sic), five-character quatrains (sic) (sic) (sic) (sic), seven-character quatrains (sic) (sic) (sic) (sic), and seven-character song verses (sic) (sic) (sic) (sic), to express shanshui themes, achieving significant artistic accomplishments. By examining his shanshui poetry from the perspective of genre, it can be said that Li Bai is the poet of the High Tang period who exerted the most effort, explored the widest range, and innovated the most in the creation of shanshui poetry. Li Bai's various genres of shanshui poetry each have their unique origins and stylistic features, exhibiting different expressions between inheritance and transformation, as well as between tradition and innovation. Overall, there are two main characteristics: first, a full expression of individuality, and second, an emphasis on the pursuit of musicality, drawing from the unique features of each poetic genre. These two characteristics form the unique identity of Li Bai's shanshui poetry, distinguishing it from that of other poets of the High Tang period, and they have had a profound influence on the art of shanshui poetry in later generations.
Liu Zongyuan's shanshui LLI7( (landscape) aesthetic conception possess unique theoretical connotations and historical contributions. He establishes his shanshui aesthetic conception on reshaping the relationship between Heaven and humanity, expressing an ideal of shanshui aesthetics that seeks suchness through valuing supreme balance fJrijii (sic)(sic). Hence, Liu's shanshui poetry and proses blend joy and sorrow, forming a complex aesthetic form. The historical contribution of Liu Zongyuan's shanshui aesthetic conception can be summarized in four points: First, he elevates scholar-officials' subjective consciousness, leading to the rise of aesthetic subjectivity in the mid-Tang period; second, he explores the relationship between "appreciation and exploration (of landscapes)" and "governing" ,further comprehending the connection between shanshui aesthetics and politics; third, he injects new qualities into the aesthetics of the Xiaoxiang';,,U landscapes, expanding the aesthetic experience of southern regions of the Yangtze River; fourth, Liu Zongyuan's shanshui aesthetic conception embodies a cosmic consciousness, deepening the theoretical implications of shanshui aesthetics in the mid-Tang period. Liu Zongyuan holds a crucial position in the transformation of shanshui aesthetic conception during that time.
The depiction of jianghu (rivers and lakes) is a significant theme in classical Chinese literature. This term usually refers to the exile places of disgraced officials. However, the Su brothers-Su Shi and Su Zhe-deliberately construct jianghu as a poetic space rich in cultural and humanistic landscapes in their writings, embodying a unique perspective among poets of the Song Dynasty. On the one hand, the Su brothers describe jianghu as a poetic realm where fish swim freely, and birds soar up high, a world adorned with beautiful landscapes, historical sites, interpersonal bonds, scholars in seclusion, local customs, and cultural relics. On the other hand, they realize that jianghu, often used by the court to exile convicts, is permeated with power networks extending from the capital, rendering it far from a haven. This paradoxical understanding reflects the Song Dynasty's political environment and developments in transportation, communication, and commerce. Notably, Su Shi poetically links jianghu with taoyua (land of peach blossom), emphasizing that the waters of jianghu originated from this utopian source. The evolution from taoyuan to jianghu represents the spiritual and cultural extension that runs in the opposite direction of power extension.
During the Southern Dynasties, shanshui (landscape) emerged as an independent aesthetic subject in literary and artistic works. The underlying causes of this phenomenon have been extensively investigated in academic scholarship. This study explores the intrinsic connections between official career pursuit and reclusive withdrawal (chuchu) and the literary discovery of shanshui as aesthetic subjects by investigating the lives of three representative figures of the Xie family of Chen Prefecture: Xie An of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Xie Lingyun of the Eastern Jin to Liu-Song transition, and Xie Tiao i Ali of the Qi Dynasty. The findings suggest that: For Xie An, shanshui served not only as sensory pleasure but also as a vehicle to alleviate psychological tensions arising from political struggles. For Xie Lingyun, shanshui provided a space to contemplate metaphysical principles, laying the philosophical foundations for the aesthetic exploration of sensory beauty. Xie Tiao integrated shanshui into daily life through his bureaucratic routines and travels, ultimately transforming nature into a spiritual sanctuary for scholars navigating court politics.
The reason why Jiangnan IE1J becomes a specialized and widely accepted concept, rich in both concrete and symbolic meaning in Chinese culture, lies not only in its prominent economic and cultural status but also in the continuous efforts of generations of literati to associate the concept with literature and imagery. The tribute system that originated in the pre-Qin period underscores the power center's desire for and appropriation of local products, which brought the specialties of the Jiangnan region to greater public attention. This marks the historical precondition for Jiangnan's transformation into a cultural image rather than merely a geographical designation. As these local products increasingly appeared in literary texts, an imagery process of Jiangnan specialties took shape within the literary field. Two successive waves of southern literati migrating northward during the Six Dynasties continually emphasized and reinforced an aesthetic perspective centered on Jiangnan. This led to two major changes in the aesthetic image of Jiangnan. Firstly, the patterns of aesthetic activities have transformed into a more positive one. Secondly, it is the landscape rather than local products that becomes the main aesthetic object. The southward migration of the Jin court, which triggered the southward shift of the cultural center, marked a significant turning point in the evolution of the Jiangnan image, bringing about dual transformations in both patterns of aesthetics and cultural psychology. The continuous reinforcement of the regional aesthetic perspective and the gradual formation of a shared cultural concept of Jiangnan constitute two decisive factors in the historical formation of the image of Jiangnan.
Scholars dedicated to establishing and developing the discipline of the study of traditional Chinese literary forms,such as Wu Chengxue,have achieved significant accomplishments regarding research objects,research scopes,research methods,and concept maps.However,within this emerging discipline,traditional Chinese literary form studies and establishing the academic framework are still under exploration,with substantial areas still awaiting further investigation and extension.Inspired by René Wellek's division of literary studies into three realms:literary history,literary criticism,and literary theory,this article proposes an academic framework of traditional Chinese literary form study,which also encompasses three realms:literary form history,literary form criticism,and literary form theory.Based on a review of the research achievements in the discipline of the study of literary forms and the three sub-fields over the past two decades,this article analyzes the uniqueness of each sub-field and their influence on each other.Furthermore,this article validates the theoretical soundness and rationality of restructuring the academic framework of the study of traditional Chinese literary forms,citing the original and historical forms of these three sub-fields.
In recent years, “aesthetics of atmospheres,” a concept introduced from Western aesthetics, has emerged in aesthetic studies, offering a new perspective to examine ancient Chinese poetry. In poetry, atmospheric beauty is neither fixed nor rationalized; rather, it is pervasive and ubiquitous, much like a mist. Atmosphere is something spatial but primarily something emotional. Atmosphere creation is the products of a poet’s emotional expression evoked by external objects; thus, evocation (gan-xing) is a catalyst for creating atmospheres. At its core, evocation is the process by which a poet is emotionally stimulated at the sight of external objects and generates a desire to express such emotions. In this process, the poet is connected with the outside world through senses such as sight and hearing and is presented with abundant physical images. When these physical images are incorporated into poems, they become atmospheric agents. In poetry, atmospheres represent the unity of emotions and intentions. They are a poet’s situational aesthetic experiences. The statement, “If there is no self in poetry, how can we possibly have poetry” holds significant theoretical importance in aesthetics. Synesthesia plays a crucial role during the creation of atmospheric beauty in poetry. By employing synesthesia, a poet can greatly enhance the tension in poetic language, extending the poetic beauty beyond a singular sensory experience, and creating rich atmospheres that blend sensations such as sound, color, and taste.
The study of Chinese literary form,with a long and profound history,has long been at the center of literary scholarship in China.However,under the impact of Western learning during the late Qing and early Republican periods,the tradition of Chinese literary form studies was gradually overshadowed and marginalized.It was not until the 1980s that this tradition began to revive,rapidly developing into the most vibrant frontier of academic growth and becoming a focal point of scholarly attention.In terms of the overall research landscape,there is significant emphasis on the study of the literary form and history of literary forms,yielding a wealth of related achievements.In contrast,discussions surrounding literary form concepts and theoretical exploration remain relatively weak.It is crucial to summarize and reflect on the modern theoretical studies in literary forms over the 20th century,as this will promote the further development of traditional literary form studies and contribute to constructing a literary theoretical discourse system with Chinese characteristics for a new era.
