A clinical case of successful oral cavity sanitation using general anesthesia in a patient with a rare genetic disease, progressive fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (PFO), is presented. Special attention is paid to the technical features of performing oral cavity sanitation and general anesthesia in the context of progressive phenomena of false ankylosis of maxillofacial structures with a total lack of mouth opening function. An individualized algorithm of actions is selected at the stage of endotracheal anesthesia with nasotracheal intubation, oral cavity sanitation, and subsequent rehabilitation. The presented case demonstrates the existence of problematic patients, the lack of information about them in the medical community, and the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration between dentists, pediatricians, orthopedists, traumatologists, anesthesiologists, and other specialists to optimize treatment outcomes and prevent potential risks in the management of patients with FOP. The positive treatment outcome indicates a significant improvement in the patient’s quality of life and the absence of complications.
The analysis of the etiology, pathogenesis and clinical features of the appearance of pain syndrome in the maxillofacial region in patients with chronic kidney disease is presented. The mechanisms of the effect of uremic intoxication on the oral mucosa and the peripheral nervous system are considered. Specific conditions such as uremic stomatitis, trigeminal neuropathy, and burning mouth syndrome have been identified. Special attention is paid to the manifestations of bone mineral disorders (CKD-MBD), including renal osteodystrophy of the jaws. The approach to pharmacological pain relief is systematized: a strict ban on the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is justified and algorithms for the safe dosing of analgesics and adjuvants (gabapentinoids) are proposed, taking into account the reduced glomerular filtration rate and dialysis clearance. Clinical recommendations on dental treatment tactics, including hemostasis measures and timing of hemodialysis sessions to minimize the risks of complications, are also formulated.
OBJECTIVE:Analysis of the implementation and use of telemedicine technologies in the field of maxillofacial surgery at the Federal Center of the National Medical Research Center "Central Research Institute of Maxillofacial Surgery" of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation in 2022-2024. MATERIAL AND METHODS:The data of 3229 telemedicine consultations (TMC) in 88 constituent entities of the Russian Federation for the period 2022-2024 were ranked. The share of cases requiring patient routing to the federal center and additional examination was determined. The analysis of the availability and staffing of maxillofacial surgeons was carried out. The increase/decrease of indicators was calculated using the standard formula for relative change as a percentage. The relationship between indicators (population size, staffing, availability, number of CFLs and number of TMCs) was estimated using the Pearson correlation coefficient (r). RESULTS:The total number of TMCs increased from 833 in 2022 to 1296 in 2024, an increase of 55.6%. The leader in absolute number of TMCs is the Volga Federal District. At the same time, a decrease in the number of consultations was noted in the North-Western District. The share of TMCs that required patient routing to the federal center was 26.6% in 2024. There was a steady increase in the share of cases that required additional examination: from 65% in 2022, 73.7% in 2023, and 69.5% in 2024. A moderate negative correlation was found between the number of doctors and the number of TMK (r≈-0.61…-0.64), and a weak positive correlation was found between the number of doctors and the volume of consultations (r≈0.37-0.38). Despite fluctuations in the number of doctors in 2023 and subsequent growth in 2024, the overall staffing increased by 5.8% over the three-year period. CONCLUSION:The data obtained indicate that telemedicine technologies in maxillofacial surgery are an effective tool for increasing the availability of specialized and high-tech medical care, especially in regions with a severe shortage of personnel and a large territorial distance. TMC contributes to early diagnosis, clarification of treatment tactics, optimization of patient routing to federal centers, and strengthening the professional competencies of regional specialists.
Adstract The adaptation of the temporomandibular joint after orthognathic surgery remains an important research topic, given its impact on the functional and aesthetic outcomes of treatment in the long term. This study aims to review the literature on changes in the morphology and position of the condylar head in patients who underwent bicuspid orthognathic surgery to correct skeletal distal occlusion, both with and without articular disc reposition. The literature search was conducted in the PubMed/Medline, Scopus, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases and covered publications published from 2020 to 2023.
Objective. To carry out a comprehensive analysis of dental manifestations and identify the features of the dental system in children with premature aging syndromes. Material and methods. The study included 7 patients with premature aging syndromes: a boy and a girl with Hutchinson—Gilford syndrome, 2 girls with Cockayne syndrome type A and B, one girl each with neonatal progeroid syndrome, Penttinen syndrome and mandibular hypoplasia, deafness, progeroid features and lipodystrophy (MDPL syndrome). During a clinical examination by a dentist, the condition of the hard tissues of the teeth, periodontal and oral mucosa was assessed. According to orthopantomography data, the condition of occlusion and dentition was assessed. Results. According to the results of the observations, a common pattern was revealed for all the examined patients: jaw hypoplasia and multiple caries. In patients with Hutchinson—Guilford and MDPL-syndrome, crowding and multiple carious lesions of the teeth were the most characteristic; for a patient with Penttinen syndrome, mandibular macrognathia, mesial occlusion and thickening of the mucous membrane of the frontal, sphenoid sinuses, a decrease in the cells of the latticed labyrinth;a feature of neonatal progeroid syndrome is the presence of neonatal incisors at birth, followed by hypo-/oligodontia or adentia. Conclusion. Knowledge of dento-mandibular anomalies in premature aging syndromes will allow dentists to timely detect pathologic changes in the dento-mandibular system and correct the dental status of patients with progeroid syndromes, which will significantly improve their quality of life.
In connection with the 100th anniversary of using the first domestic static method for determining masticatory efficiency in practical dentistry, the aim is to highlight the key milestones in the scientific, clinical, educational and public activities of the prominent Soviet scientist, educator, clinician and public figure, Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor Nikolai Ivanovich Agapov.
Despite the improvement of protocols for eliminating diastema in children and adolescents, there are some cases of orthodontists prescribing the wearing of elastic bands, which, if worn uncontrollably and without retention points on the teeth, can enter the periodontium, causing destruction of the tissues surrounding the teeth. This iatrogenic complication, if unfavorable, may necessitate the extraction of teeth. The article presents a clinical case of removing elastic bands from periodontal tissues in a 9-year-old child which remained in periodontal tissues for more than 2 months.
Augmented reality (AR) is gaining increasing relevance in maxillofacial reconstructive surgery by enabling the integration of digital preoperative planning into the real-time surgical field. This systematic review analyzes current studies on the use of AR in fibula osteotomies, perforator flap harvesting, auricular reconstruction, and zygomatic-orbital complex repair. Special attention is paid to hologram registration methods, types of devices (HMDs, tablets), and accuracy of virtual navigation. Key technical limitations are outlined, including image instability and depth perception issues. AR systems demonstrate comparable accuracy to CAD/CAM templates and offer additional advantages such as intraoperative plan adjustments without compromising sterility. The findings support the potential of AR as a tool for personalized surgical navigation, provided that current technological barriers are addressed.
Objective. Of this work is to evaluate the effectiveness of an algorithm for comprehensive diagnosis and conservative treatment of galvanic syndrome developing against the background of electrogalvanic processes in the oral cavity. Material and methods. 72 people were examined. The algorithm of complex diagnostics consisted in the sequential carrying out of three stages of research (E1, E2, E3). On E1, the electromotive force (EMF) between metal containing structures was determined; on E2 — metal-containing structures, which are in a state of electro-galvanic activity; E3 — the ability of metal-containing structures to reduce their electro-galvanic activity. Patients who were found to have the ability to reduce their electro-galvanic activity with metal-containing structures were prescribed conservative treatment, which consisted of daily (10 days) mouth rinsing with a sodium thiosulfate solution. Results. Electrogalvanic phenomena were detected in 56 out of 72 individuals. At stage E1, among these 56 patients, electromotive force between metal-containing constructions capable of inducing electrogalvanic processes and significantly different from the physiological norm of 50 mV was detected in 43 individuals, accounting for 76.8% (p<0.05). The difference in electrochemical potentials of metal-containing constructions in these patients was 117.8±22.3 mV. At stage E2, metal-containing constructions in a state of electrogalvanic activity were identified in 91.1%, that is, in 51 out of 56 patients. The difference in hydrogen index values in these patients was 0.8±0.11, which was significantly higher than the reference value of 0.6 (p<0.05).At stage E3, a decrease in electrogalvanic activity of metallic constructions was detected in 60.7%, that is, in 34 out of 56 patients. In 20 out of 34 patients (58.8%), both immediately after treatment and after one month of follow-up, complaints were absent, and the difference in hydrogen index values was significantly lower than 0.6, amounting to 0.3±0.07 (p<0.05), which indicated the effectiveness of the proposed method. Conclusion. The conducted study demonstrated that the use of a comprehensive examination algorithm for detecting electrogalvanic processes in the oral cavity is justified. Conservative treatment, in the presence of a positive test for reduction of electrogalvanic activity of metallic constructions, allows complete elimination of symptoms of galvanic syndrome in 58.8% of cases.
The article describes a clinical case of Behcet’s disease, manifested by recurrent aphthae in the oral cavity and genital ulcers. The disease occurred in childhood in the form of chronic recurrent aphthous stomatitis.
Objective. To investigate the values of torque and implant stability quotient of implants with non-aggressive and «active» threads placed using standard spiral and stepped drills. Material and methods. As the experimental model was used pig’s breastbone. Forty implants were divided in two groups which included 10 implants of each type according to thread design. In the first group bone site preparation was conducted with spiral drills, in the second one — using stepped drill. Peek torque values were measured with surgical motor and dynamometric key and to assess implant stability quotient was used Osstell device with Smartpeg and Multipeg pins. Results. In the first group, there was no significant difference using any type of implant. In the second group, there was a significant increase in the studied parameters during the use of implants with «active» threads with a stepped drill. Torque values increased in 1.7 times. The increase in stability quotient for both Smartpeg and Multipeg pins in average was 8% and 7% respectively. When comparing cylindrical implants with non-aggressive threads with standard drills and conical implants with «active» threads with a stepped drill, the increase of maximum torque and stability quotient was 80%, 8% and 7% respectively. Conclusion. The use of cylindrical implants with non-aggressive threads when working in low density bone both when using spiral or stepped drills, is characterized by low values of torque and stability quotient. In low density bone the placement of conical implants with «active» threads using a stepped drill is effective.
Objective To evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of OMV@FeS against oral squamous cell carcinoma(OSCC).Methods Escherichia coli-derived outer membrane vesicle(OMV)was extracted using ultracentrifugation and co-precipitated with FeS to form OMV@FeS.The morphology,average particle size,Zeta potential,and elemental composition of OMV@FeS were characterized.Pho-tothermal performance under 808 nm laser irradiation was assessed.Intracellular reactive oxygen species(ROS)levels and mitochondrial membrane potential changes were detected using DCFH-DA and JC-1 probes respectively on squamous cell carcinoma(SCC-7)cells.The synergistic cytotoxicity of OMV@FeS combined with laser irradiation was evaluated through CCK-8 and Calcein-AM/PI dual staining,respectively.Flow cytometry analysis was employed to evaluate the induction of tumor-associated macrophage polarization and maturation of undifferentiated dendritic cells.A subcutaneous xenograft model of SCC-7 was developed to systematically evaluate the antitumor efficacy and biosafety of OMV@FeS.Results Transmission electron microscopy(TEM)analysis confirmed that FeS was uniformly distributed within OMV vesicles to form OMV@FeS.Under near-infrared laser(808 nm)irradiation,the tempera-ture of the OMV@FeS system(＞100 μg/mL)could exceed 55℃,meeting the tumor ablation temperature required for photothermal therapy.The photothermal conversion rate was 58.7%,demonstrating excellent photothermal performance and stability.When combined with OMV@FeS under laser irradiation,significant ROS generation and a marked decrease in JC-1 fluorescence-labeled mitochondrial membrane potential were observed within SCC-7 cells.Calcein-AM/PI dual staining and CCK-8 assays revealed that the combination of OMV@FeS with a near-infrared laser exhibited significant synergistic cyto-toxic effects against SCC-7 cells.Flow cytometry analysis demonstrated that OMV@FeS effectively induced the polarization of M2 macrophages toward the M1 phenotype.Furthermore,flow cytometry analysis of CD80 and CD86 demonstrated that OMV@FeS combined with near-infrared laser irradiation significantly promoted the maturation of dendritic cells.The tumor-inhibiting effect of OMV@FeS under laser intervention was highly significant in SCC-7 tumor-bearing mice,as evidenced by a continuous reduction in tumor volume.HE staining demonstrated significant apoptotic or necrotic features in tumor cells,further validating the efficacy of this combined therapy strategy in vivo.Conclusion OMV@FeS exhibits synergistic effects of photothermal therapy,photodynamic therapy and immunotherapy under near-infrared laser irradiation,realizing combined enhancement of physical therapy and biological immunotherapy,thereby exerting a positive therapeutic effect on OSCC.
Objective To improve the surface bioactivity of polyetheretherketone(PEEK)by constructing a polydopamine(PDA)-mediated recombinant humanized type Ⅲ collagen coating.Methods A composite coating was fabricated using a two-step immersion method.Briefly,PEEK substrates were first immersed in a dopamine(DA)solution to form an in situ self-polymerized PDA intermedi-ate layer(PDA-PEEK),followed by immersion in a recombinant humanized type Ⅲ collagen solution to obtain Col-PEEK.Surface characteristics were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy(SEM),water contact angle measurement,Fourier transform infrared spectrum(FTIR),and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy(XPS).Human jaw bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells(hjBMMSCs)were used as a model.Cells were cultured either with complete medium(Control group)or with material extracts(PEEK,PDA-PEEK,and Col-PEEK groups),and cell proliferation was then evaluated using the CCK-8 assay.Cell adhesion morphology was observed micro-scopically.Osteogenic differentiation and mineralization were assessed by quantitative alkaline phosphatase(ALP)activity analysis and semi-quantitative alizarin red S(ARS)staining.The expression levels of osteogenesis-related genes were determined by RT-qPCR.Re-sults SEM observations revealed that the coating was uniformly distributed without altering the microstructure of the substrate.The wa-ter contact angle of Col-PEEK was significantly reduced(P＜0.05),indicating markedly improved hydrophilicity.FTIR and XPS analy-ses confirmed the successful immobilization of type Ⅲ collagen onto the PDA layer.CCK-8 assays demonstrated that the modified materials exhibited no cytotoxicity.Cells cultured on Col-PEEK displayed en-hanced spreading and more filopodia formation.ALP activity and calci-um nodule deposition were significantly increased(P＜0.05),accom-panied by a marked upregulation of key osteogenic gene expression(P＜0.05).Conclusion The PDA-mediated recombinant humanized type Ⅲ collagen composite coating significantly enhances the hydro-philicity,cell adhesion,and osteoinductive activity of PEEK surfaces.This modification strategy provides a novel surface modification approach and experimental evidence for the clinical translation of PEEK in oral implantation and maxillofacial bone regeneration.
Objective To investigate the effects of triptolide on the secretion of inflammatory factors and alveolar bone resorption in rats with Fusobacterium nucleatum-related periodontitis,as well as its underlying mechanism.Methods Eighteen 6-week-old male SD rats were selected for periodontal ligation and randomly divided into three groups based on whether they were infected with Fusobacteri-um nucleatum and received triptolide gingival sulcus injection:The simple periodontal ligation control group(LC group),the periodon-tal ligation+Fusobacterium nucleatum group(FN group),and the periodontal ligation+Fusobacterium nucleatum+30 μg/kg triptol-ide group(TPL group).The levels of liver and kidney function indicators in serum,including creatinine(Cr),alanine aminotrans-ferase(ALT),aspartate aminotransferase(AST),and blood urea nitrogen(BUN),were measured.The sulcus bleeding index(SBI)and probing depth(PD)of the upper left first molar in rats were recorded.Micro-CT was used to analyze the degree of alveolar bone re-sorption.Hematoxylin-eosin(HE)staining was employed to evaluate the inflammatory status of gingival tissue.Immunohistochemical staining was performed to detect the expression of interleukin-6(IL-6),receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand(RANKL),tumor necrosis factor-α(TNF-α),and osteoclastogenesis inhibitory factor(OPG).Alizarin red S staining and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase(TRAP)staining were used to detect the precentage of alizarin red S-positive area and the number of osteoclasts in alveo-lar bone tissue,respectively.Results Gingival sulcus injection of 30 μg/kg triptolide had no significant impact on liver and kidney function-related indicators in rats.Compared with the LC group,the inflammatory response of periodontitis in the FN group was significantly aggravated,with significantly increased SBI,PD,the number of inflammatory cells and osteoclasts,the distance from the ce-mentoenamel junction(CEJ)to the alveolar bone crest(ABC)(CEJ-ABC),and the levels of IL-6,TNF-α,and RANKL in gingival tissue(P＜0.05).In contrast,the bone mineral density(BMD)and trabecular thickness(Tb.Th)of alveolar bone,the level of OPG in gin-gival tissue,and the percentage of alizarin red S-positive area were significantly decreased(P＜0.01).Compared with the FN group,the TPL group exhibited reduced gingival inflammation,with significantly decreased SBI,PD,CEJ-ABC of alveolar bone,the number of inflammatory cells and osteoclasts,and the levels of IL-6,TNF-α,and RANKL in gingival tissue(P＜0.05).Conversely,the BMD and Tb.Th of alveolar bone,the level of OPG in gingival tissue,and the percentage of alizarin red S-positive area were significantly in-creased(P＜0.01).Conclusion Triptolide alleviates the inflammatory response in periodontal tissues and reduces alveolar bone re-sorption in rats with Fusobacterium nucleatum-related periodontitis by inhibiting the secretion of inflammatory cytokines and the forma-tion of osteoclasts.
Miniscrew-assisted rapid palatal expansion(MARPE), a transformative approach for adult maxillary transverse deficiency, is increasingly superseding conventional palatal expansion. While MARPE boasts robust evidence in biomechanical efficacy and clinicaloutcomes, its seamless integration with AI-driven digital diagnostic systems remains under-explored. This study converges biomechanical analysis, clinical evaluation, and novel device design to pioneer synergistic applications of 3D imaging and AI technologies. By advancing data-driven protocols for customized force delivery and skeletal adaptation, this work aims to establish a scientific foundation for precision orthodontic correction, propelling the evolution of personalized and digitized treatment paradigms.
Objective To analyze the dento-maxillofacial features of adolescents with congenital absence of lower incisor teeth,and explore the influence of lower incisor absence on dento-maxillofacial morphology.Methods A total of 60 control samples and 114 sam-ples with missing teeth(missing 1 tooth:69;missing 2 teeth:45)were included in the study.By means of cephalometric imaging analy-sis on the lateral cephalic radiography,the differences in the dento-maxillofacial features between the normal population and teenagers with lower incisor missing teeth were compared,and the results were statistically analyzed.Results Compared with control group,SNB,ANB,FMA,Po-NB and SGn-FH were significantly different in bone tissue measurement(P＜0.05).In tooth measurement,L1-NB angle,L1-NB distance and L1-MP angle were significantly reduced(P＜0.05).LL-EP,FH-N′Pog′ and N′-Sn-Pog′ were signifi-cantly different in soft tissue measurements(P＜0.05).Conclusion The congenital absence of lower incisor teeth in adolescents is mostly manifested as Class Ⅱ skeletal pattern,and most of thempresented with mandibular underdevelopment including the vertical and sagittal directions.However,the chin has compensatory growth.The lingual inclination of the incisor axis is obvious in the missing teeth group,and the lingual inclination of the incisor is more obvious in the patients with 2 missing incisor teeth.In addition,the chin soft tissue is well developed,but the lower lip is relatively retracted.
This article reports a case of early implant placement combined with soft tissue augmentation for a defect in the esthetic zone. During the surgery, an autonomous dental implant robot (Yake Intelligence, Beijing, China) assisted with implant placement, and guided bone regeneration (GBR) was performed to repair the bone defect. In the second-stage surgery, a subepithelial connective tissue graft (SCTG) was performed to improve the soft tissue contour. A three-year postoperative follow-up showed good osseointegration around the implant, with the labial bone plate thickness maintained at 2.95 mm. The pink esthetic score (PES) was 12, the white esthetic score (WES) was 9, and the visual analogue scale (VAS) was 90. The restoration exhibited a harmonious shape, stable soft tissues, and satisfactory esthetic results. This case demonstrates that autonomous robot-assisted implant placement combined with soft tissue augmentation techniques can achieve long-term stability and favorable esthetic results for implant placement in the esthetic zone.
Objective To investigate the biomechanical effects of internal friction angles during crown sectioning on surrounding tissues in horizontally low-positioned impacted third molars through three-dimensional finite element analysis, and establish quantitative operational criteria for precise crown division. Methods Utilizing CBCT data, a three-dimensional finite element model incorporating the impacted tooth (M3M), adjacent tooth (M2M), periodontal ligament, cortical/trabecular bone, and inferior alveolar nerve canal was constructed. Four experimental groups with distinct internal friction angles (50°/60°/75°/90°) were established to simulate crown sectioning under 35 N vertical loading. The tooth fracture efficiency and stress/displacement responses in adjacent teeth, jawbone, and neural structures were systematically evaluated. Results Using enamel’s maximum yield strength as the stress threshold, fracture efficiency was quantified through stress concentration factor (SCF) analysis. The 60° group demonstrated 139.57% greater stress concentration effect compared to conventional 90° group, indicating enhanced fracture efficiency. The 50° group exhibited incomplete fractures due to stress interruption. For adjacent tooth protection, the 75° and 60° groups reduced M2M periodontal ligament stress by 16.7% versus the 90° group. Fracture risk assessment revealed lingual bone plate stress in the 50° group approached mandibular yield thresholds. The 60° group showed minimal neural canal stress among tested angles. Conclusion Optimal internal friction angles (60°, 75°) during crown sectioning of horizontally impacted third molars effectively balance fracture efficiency with tissue preservation. Excessive reduction in friction angle (50°) causes uneven stress distribution and compromised fracture outcomes. Surgical protocols should emphasize lingual bone plate protection to prevent neurovascular damage.
Objective To investigate the molecular mechanism by which Filifactor alocis (F. alocis) regulates neutrophil infiltration and exacerbates experimental periodontitis. Methods A F. alocis infection model was established in neutrophils. Neutrophil cytotoxicity under F. alocis stimulation was assessed using CCK-8 assay. RT-qPCR was performed to detect the mRNA expression of neutrophil chemokines (C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 1 (CXCL1), CXCL2, CXCL3, CXCL5, CXCL6, CXCL8, CXCL16) and inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2). CXCL3 secretion levels were measured using ELISA. The expression of CXCL3 in neutrophils was detected by cellular immunofluorescence. Chemotaxis was measured using Transwell assays. A mouse model of F. alocis-induced periodontitis was established by silk ligation around bilateral maxillary second molars combined with oral smearing of F. alocis. CXCL3 neutralizing antibody was administered by gingival injection. Alveolar bone destruction was assessed using Micro-CT, and the infiltration of lymphocyte antigen 6 complex locus G (Ly-6G)-positive neutrophils in periodontal tissues was detected by tissue immunofluorescence staining. Results F. alocis exhibited minimal cytotoxic effects on neutrophils at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 10 within a 6-hour co-culture period. F. alocis upregulated the mRNA expression of CXCL2, CXCL3, CXCL8, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6, while downregulating CCL2 expression, thereby enhancing neutrophil chemotaxis and inflammatory cytokine release. In vivo, F. alocis aggravated alveolar bone destruction and neutrophil infiltration in the periodontal tissues of periodontitis model mice. Notably, administration of a CXCL3-neutralizing antibody effectively suppressed this inflammatory process. Conclusion F. alocis promotes neutrophil recruitment into periodontal tissues via CXCL3, exacerbating alveolar bone destruction and tissue inflammation in periodontitis. These findings identify CXCL3 as a key chemokine mediating F. alocis pathogenicity and a potential therapeutic target.
Adenoid cystic carcinoma(ACC)is a common malignant tumor encountered in oral and maxillofacial surgery, characterized by its aggressive nature, frequent recurrence, and distant metastasis, posing significant challenges in clinical treatment. The PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway stands as a crucial intracellular signaling cascade, involved in regulating various biological processes such as cell proliferation, survival, metabolism, and migration. Studies have revealed the abnormal activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway in ACC, which not only promotes tumor cell proliferation and invasion but also closely correlates with drug resistance and poor prognosis. Furthermore, targeted therapies against the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway have demonstrated potential efficacy in preclinical studies on ACC, offering new avenues for improving patient outcomes. This article provides a comprehensive review of the regulatory mechanisms, biological functions, and interactions with other signaling pathways of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling cascade in ACC. It aims to offer insights and references for future in-depth understanding of ACC pathophysiology and the development of novel drugs and therapeutic approaches.
