El estudio tiene como objetivo principal desarrollar una reconstrucción virtual tridimensional (3D) integral de la ciudad prehispánica de Oxtankah, en la bahía de Chetumal. Los fines son de conservación, investigación arqueológica, divulgación científica y mejora de la experiencia del visitante. El proyecto plantea como eje central la integración de la arqueología virtual como herramienta para interpretar, comunicar y gestionar el patrimonio cultural maya. Se priorizan el rigor científico, la transparencia y la verificabilidad. El trabajo adopta un diseño metodológico mixto que combina técnicas arqueológicas tradicionales con tecnologías digitales avanzadas. La recolección de datos incluyó levantamientos topográficos de alta precisión mediante GNSS RTK, estaciones totales, drones y fotogrametría; además, se cuenta con el análisis de informes arqueológicos previos y de modelos digitales de elevación (MDE) con resoluciones ≤1 cm/píxel. El procesamiento y modelado se realizó en gabinete mediante software especializado (AutoCAD, QGIS, Surfer, Agisoft Metashape y Blender 4.02), siguiendo un flujo de trabajo estructurado en seis fases: planimetría, modelado poligonal, mapeado UV, texturización PBR, iluminación y renderizado. Las reconstrucciones se fundamentaron en evidencias arqueológicas, analogías regionales y criterios establecidos por la arqueología virtual. El proyecto generó un modelo 3D detallado de 440 estructuras arqueológicas e históricas dentro del polígono del INAH, incluyendo plazas, conjuntos habitacionales, áreas productivas, paisaje natural y cuerpos de agua. Se incorporaron personajes digitales y escenarios de la vida cotidiana para contextualizar el entorno sociocultural. Los modelos se aplicaron directamente al diseño de 27 paneles informativos, museografía y señalética, optimizando la comprensión espacial y cronológica del sitio. Los resultados demuestran que la reconstrucción virtual constituye una herramienta eficaz para la preservación digital, la generación de hipótesis reconstructivas y la divulgación del conocimiento arqueológico. Aunque las reconstrucciones se reconocen como propuestas hipotéticas sujetas a actualización, su aportación al estudio del paisaje cultural maya y a la gestión del patrimonio es significativa. Todo ello consolida la arqueología virtual como un enfoque metodológico de alto valor interdisciplinar.
This study proposes a methodology that combines traditional two-dimensional (2D) drawing and three-dimensional (3D) modelling methods with generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) for the virtual reconstruction of destroyed buildings. This methodology can reduce production and texturing times without compromising the historical accuracy or photorealistic quality of the final images. As a case study, we propose to reconstruct the crypt of the Royal Monastery of Saint Engracia in Zaragoza, Spain, a space of Early Christian origin dating from the fourth century AD that reached its greatest extent in the 17th century. The complex was destroyed in the 19th century during the French invasion of 1808-1814 and subsequent interventions removed the surviving architectural remains. Consequently, no physical remains are available as a basis for the reconstruction. The methodology is therefore based on the analysis of historical documentation and architectural analogues. An initial floor-plan hypothesis was developed using AutoCAD 2025, followed by the creation of a detailed 3D model in Rhinoceros 8. In the final stage, the model was rendered without materials or textures in D5 Render. The resulting images were then processed using Nano Banana Pro, Gemini's image-generator tool, to generate textures and wall paintings with GenAI. Although the results were satisfactory, GenAI was found to introduce arbitrary artefacts or random interpretations into textures and architectural elements. For this reason, the tool should not operate autonomously, as human supervision is required to filter and validate each action and ensure that automatic generation does not compromise technical and historical accuracy. In conclusion, integrating GenAI into virtual reconstruction not only accelerates the workflow, but can also allow us to overcome the technical obstacles that hinder the virtual reconstruction of lost buildings, provided that its use is guided by scientific criteria and human oversight.
This article presents a work about the coffered ceiling of the Synagogue of El Tránsito (Toledo), an exceptional example of 14th-century Spanish-Muslim carpentry. Its structural model follows the typical geometric standards of the period which were common to both Christian and Muslim traditions in the 14th-century in Spain. This work includes, on the one hand, the analysis of the coffered ceiling geometric design: first, a basic module has been identified, as well as the several patterns that were developed with its variations and combinations; secondly, the whole design has been fit to the global dimensions to generate an idealised whole layout of the structure. Finally, a comparison with the actual geometry of the building has been carried out to analyse the reasons of the differences between them. On the other hand, a study of the coffered ceiling constructive configuration has been developed: the pieces that form the structure have been firstly individualized to study their assembling process later. The research has been possible thanks to a three-dimensional (3D) survey done in the building combining several techniques (laser scanning and photogrammetry). This generated a point cloud which has been the geometric basis for the latter analysis and for the generation of 3D parametric models of the coffered ceiling pieces. The main results are the geometric layout which could be used by carpenters to design the coffered ceiling, as well as the explanation of the wooden pieces and their assembling process. The paper is fully illustrated with two-dimensional (2D) drawings and images of the 3D models, thus helping to reach a better knowledge, conservation and dissemination of these types of historical wooden structures.
Three-dimensional Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) enables the high-fidelity reconstruction and rapid rendering of physical objects and spaces while producing highly portable files, enhancing immersive 3D cultural heritage visualizations. Although existing quality metrics demonstrate technical excellence in encoding accuracy and perceptual quality, stakeholders’ perspectives on this technology and their willingness to adopt it remain largely unexplored. A human-centered evaluation is therefore needed to assess the technology’s practical viability in cultural heritage preservation contexts. Using questionnaires and semi-structured interviews supported by static and interactive visualizations of Puri Klungkung, a Balinese palace in Indonesia, we collected quantitative and qualitative data from eight local experts in history, archaeology, vernacular architecture, and heritage conservation. Our results suggest that experts evaluate 3DGS and photogrammetry differently in both static and interactive visualizations. 3DGS was consistently preferred for close-up views containing complex elements, such as vegetation, water, and architectural details, and was perceived as providing better detail preservation, visual quality, and geometric accuracy. The two techniques received comparable ratings for their representation of materiality and spatial perception. Photogrammetry was preferred for scholarly dissemination because of its greater geometric accuracy and level of detail. By contrast, 3DGS in its current form, appears better suited to public-facing projects, where its visual elements generate more photorealistic renderings, although its geometric accuracy may be lower. Considering the target users’ needs from the outset of the project is therefore important when selecting the most appropriate visualization technique. The thematic analysis yielded recommendations concerning applicability, user familiarity, visual properties, interactivity, and practical implementation, guiding effective visualization of historical Hindu cultural heritage sites in South and Southeast Asia.
In recent decades, digital and 3D documentation of archaeological heritage has become an essential method to produce historical insights, both in the scientific field and for dissemination. However, its implementation for the study of large spaces is conditioned by the conservation of accessible and comprehensible structures from an archaeo-architectural point of view. As a result, this approach has primarily been applied to structures preserved outdoors or in rural settings such as villae. In this sense, this article presents a comprehensive archaeo-architectural reading; it examines the ornamental programs of the Roman house in Ramirez de las Casas Deza street in C & oacute;rdoba, known as the Bailio house, currently preserved under the Hospes Palacio del Bailio hotel (Figs. 1 and 2). The objective is to define the different phases the house has gone through, from both an archaeological and a visual perspective. This domus is one of the most notable examples of private Roman architecture in the city, which follows the morphology of a peristyle house; it preserves part of the ambulacrum and two rooms opening to it, of which the triclinium stands out. However, the treatment of its remains has been fragmentary and inconsistent, as since its discovery in 1948 it has only been dealt with in a few incomplete works (Santos Gener, 1955; Carrillo Diaz-Pin & eacute;s, 1999). The results of the most recent archaeological intervention in 2006 have not culminated in a publication dealing in depth with the dwelling and providing a clear vision of its chronology, morphology, and construction phases. These questions inspired a work project which has been developed in order to reinterpret the preserved archaeological remains, specifying the precise association of the structures and ornamental programs with the phases in which the house was used. Based on its re-reading, digital documentation has been carried out so as to visually materialize the research results. From the outset, the project has pursued two fundamental objectives: to increase of scientific knowledge and to transfer knowledge to society. Thus, and in line with the Seville Principles, the existing remains have been documented using photogrammetry (Fig. 4), applying the analysis and planimetric interpretation thanks to Adobe Illustrator and inserting the reconstructive hypothesis in a Geographic Information System (GIS) map of the Roman city. In addition, the application of various tools for the analysis and restitution of the ornamental programs, such as Dstretch and Adobe Illustrator, have been included, providing a scientifically contrasted image of the decoration within the studied spaces (Fig. 6). Based on the information generated, the authors carried out the house volumetric reconstruction, using 3D modelling in Blender; the textures were processed and integrated using Procreate and Materialize. This phase has culminated in the house recreation by means of different models that reflect its transformation over time, visible through rendered infographics (Fig. 9 and 11). The result has been made accessible through a QR code that will be included in the site itself. In this way, the archaeo-architectural review presents how the house was used from the first half of the 1st century AD to the end of the 2nd century-beginning of the 3rd century AD, clearly associating the ornamental programs with the different internal remodeling phases of the house. This is a pioneering work in the holistic analysis that includes a study of the pavements, decorative programs, architecture, and urban planning in Roman Cordoba, offering us a new vision of the house at a chronological and constructive level, being the first case applied to the city. This provides a resource of great dissemination value to understand Cordoba's archaeological heritage by its inhabitants and visitors.
This study explores an innovative methodology to valorize and digitally disseminate endangered architectural heritage, focusing on the Monasterio de Nuestra Senora del Risco in Amavida, & Aacute;vila, Spain. The project aims to connect the historical reconstruction of the monastery at its period of maximum relevance, in the 18th century, with its current state. This approach uses images generated from a three-dimensional (3D) model and a 4D virtual tour. It integrates various aspects of the building, including architectural elements, site features, and potential functions. The virtual reconstruction meticulously represents decorative elements, furniture, and interior lighting to recreate the atmosphere of prayer, work, and communal life that characterized the monastic space. The project focuses on an endangered architectonic asset, under the assumption that cultural heritage serves as a testament to human history and creativity, encapsulating the essence of past civilizations. However, contemporary challenges, such as historical structures frequently becoming abandoned, pose significant threats to this heritage. The Monasterio de Nuestra Senora del Risco, with its unique architectural and historical value, exemplifies these challenges. After a long period of abandonment, from 1835 onwards, its structure was severely damaged and the building was at risk of complete loss. This study aims to address these issues through a comprehensive digital reconstruction and dissemination strategy. The applied methodology involves several phases, including bibliographic review, fieldwork, plus the use of advanced digital techniques. The bibliographic review sourced information from various archives and historical documents; fieldwork included the documentation and analysis of the remaining architectural elements, both onsite and displaced within the surrounding villages. Photogrammetry and UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) technology captured detailed images and generated a 3D model of the monastery. Specific software (SketchUp and Lumion) created a detailed model of the monastery. This model integrates data from photogrammetric surveys and historical records, ensuring accuracy and fidelity to the original structure. The 4D virtual tour allows users to explore the monastery in both its historical and current states; this provides a comprehensive understanding of its evolution over time. The digital reconstruction reveals the monastery's architectural complexity and historical significance. Key features include the unique building layout, influenced by the rugged terrain and the integration of the sacred cave into the monastic structure. To capture this, a detailed geometric survey was required; the reason is that there are differences in terms of spatial arrangement which are notable with respect to similar examples of heritage. Among these, San Jer & oacute;nimo de Guisando and Aldeanueva de Santa Cruz, used as a reference for decorations and styles should be mentioned. The project also identifies and documents displaced architectural elements, contributing to a more complete understanding of the monastery's original form. The digital reconstruction and virtual tour serve as powerful tools for heritage conservation and education. When dealing with 4D reconstructions, it was necessary to set the exact periods for the representation. In this case, the selected period was the 18th century, as it corresponded to the moment of greatest relevance in the environment, when the whole complex had already been built. Hence, this project highlights the architectural richness of the monastery, and underscores its historical and cultural significance. The careful element representation, together with the identification of dislocated assets from the monastery, provides an enriched vision of the historical legacy, promoting its valorization and conservation. The project offers an immersive experience that enhances public awareness and appreciation of the monastery's historical and cultural value. This approach also demonstrates that digital techniques have great potential to support the preservation and revitalization of endangered heritage sites. The project underscores the importance of integrating digital technologies in heritage conservation, offering a detailed description of the methodology employed for the documentation and recreation of the monastery. This methodology can serve as a model for similar initiatives aimed at preserving and disseminating endangered architectural heritage.
There is a lack of bibliography concerning the specific methodology and limitations of historical data gathering to achieve high-quality and accurate productions of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) technology applied to heritage dissemination. Most papers focus on the technical features and dissemination application of 3D and VR; the rigour of the research process specifically aimed at 3D reconstruction is usually not addressed, or taken into account by digitalization technicians. Although digitalization of heritage sites carried out by the same team or project in charge of its documentation mitigates the problem, several digitalization and public dissemination projects are conceived as a subsequent step, usually conducted by specialists or technicians not necessarily familiar with the heritage site’s features. This paper addresses this methodological need through the researcher’s experience in a multidisciplinary VR heritage project. The aim is to integrate historical research within the development of a VR museum within the Orígens UNESCO Global Geopark in the Catalan Pyrenees, Spain. Specifically, it explores the particular needs, challenges, and limitations of historical data gathering to accurately produce VR reconstructions of a cultural heritage site in Gerri de la Sal. The site involves studying a prehistoric salt production complex, a medieval monastery, and traditional salt-making processes. The experience has allowed the authors to propose a viable 3-step work plan to conduct research and documentation for VR dissemination. The result is a 7-minutes long VR documentary, to be displayed at the local museum of Gerri de la Sal, meeting the international VR reconstructions rigour guidelines. Thanks to successfully achieving this objective, the researchers have also addressed basic limitations of the proposed methodology and have proposed viable strategies to overcome them.
The research described in this paper used digital technologies to study the ethical and philosophical implications related to the analysis and interpretation of historical sources of cultural heritage. As the described technologies used are not neutral tools, they actively shape heritage narratives, influencing how we perceive and represent the past. Thus, reconstructing the past through heritage fragments cannot be objective or universally accepted, as it is inherently shaped by contemporary social, cultural, and political contexts. The past, therefore, can only be analysed from the unique perspective of the present. In this regard, the American historian David Lowenthal suggests “the past is a foreign country,” and therefore, its language, customs, and traditions cannot be fully understood. Since heritage is irreconcilable with the past, or more precisely —quoting Lowenthal again—since heritage is a “distortion” of the past, cultural heritage studies should combat those simulacra that define the past as objective, unambiguous, and unquestionable—definitions often protected by academia. The case study this paper focuses on is the Monastery of Nossa Senhora da Rosa of the Order of São Paulo da Serra de Ossa (Caparica, Portugal). It represents an opportunity to reflect on the ambiguity implicit when reading historical sources, always involving a certain interpretive and creative component. Borrowing the semiotic concept of translation, it is possible to say that reading any source is comparable to translating a document from an obscure and mysterious “language”, that of the past, to the contemporary world “language”. During the process of transferring word meanings from one language to another, many nuances inevitably end up being twisted, lost, or otherwise altered. Consequently, “translating” the drawing into the real building (as well as into a virtual replica) is, to use a famous 16thcenturyanalogy, a sort of “betrayal,” a departure from the initial idea represented on the sheet. This is particularly pertinent when the building no longer exists, as is the case with the Monastery of Nossa Senhora da Rosa. What are the limits of interpretation, its criteria, and the freedom that the "reader/interpreter" can take? What is the role of digital technologies in this theoretical framework? This research, rather than extolling the photorealistic results of digital heritage visualisations and their uniqueness, focuses on the process that led to certain interpretations, emphasising their subjective and context-dependent aspects.
This paper presents an intervisibility study applied to a set of necropolises on the island of Menorca. 25funerary complexes have been analysed, each comprising a variable number of funerary units. These complexes include caves from different prehistoric periods, ranging from the Late Bronze Age to the Second Iron Age and the Roman period. Among them, both natural caves and the so-called artificial caves (rock-cut tombs) are documented. These artificial caves exhibit notable morphological variability, either for chronological reasons or due to their inherent structural differences. The intervisibility analyses aim to identify mesospatial patterns in the arrangement of caves within each complex, to determine which ones exert greater visual control over the rest and which are more exposed. The results have been cross-checked against previous studies of cumulative visibility and related to the typology of the tombs, examining them from a morpho-architectural perspective. It should be noted that some of the caves that are structurally more complex show a significantly greater investment of labour in their external elements, in some cases, through moulded bands framing the entrances; in other cases, one can observe the excavation of open courtyards in the rock at the funerary chambers entrance. For the analyses, the research team used the Visibility Analysis plugin available in QGIS, a free and open-source software under the GNU GPL license. First, a 1-m-resolution digital terrain model (DTM)was generated from light detection and ranging (LiDAR) point clouds available as open data from the Spanish National Geographic Institute (IGN). Subsequently, intervisibility calculations were run for each funerary complex and the data were compared with the cumulative visibility results obtained in previous work. Raster-based calculations were used to identify the funerary units that exercised greater visual control over the rest and those that, applying spatial statistics, commanded a larger portion of the surrounding territory. To sum up, this set of analyses makes it possible to recognize the caves that play a predominant role within the funerary complexes under study, as well as to formulate hypotheses, both about their spatial articulation and about its possible reflection in the social order of the prehistoric communities that inhabited Menorca during the first millennium BCE.
Building upon our previous work on underwater (UW) image colour restoration, this paper advances the self-adaptive colour calibration (SACC)pipeline, by introducing a systematic, reference-based quantitative evaluation. UWimagery is notoriously affected by wavelength-dependent light absorption, scattering, and colour attenuation; these factors distort the visual appearance of submerged objects and complicate scientific documentation. Traditional model-based correction techniques often rely on well-calibrated equipment or prior environmental data; many artificial intelligence (AI)-driven approaches suffer from dataset bias and limited generalisability. The work explained below addresses these challenges by providing a flexible pipeline that restores colours without requiring extensive environmental metadata; this methodology is particularly well-suited for archival and in-field datasets. New datasets acquired from the 18th-century Nissia shipwreck site, located off Protaras in Cyprus, were employed to evaluate the pipeline under real-world excavation conditions. These datasets, captured with a rigid camera–strobe configuration, include reference regions with colour charts; these provide reliable ‘ground-truth’(GT)values for objective comparison. Structure from Motion (SfM) and Multi-View Stereo (MVS) were used to derive depth maps, which, together with red-green-blue (RGB)values, were input to a Feedforward Neural Network (FNN). The network was trained using Adam and RMSprop optimisers, enabling the restoration of perceptually accurate colours across varying conditions. Three metrics, modified R², Euclidean Distance, and the D metric, were applied to assess performance. The evaluation is constrained by the limited number of images containing colour charts; even so, this limitation reflects authentic field conditions, where divers must prioritise site documentation over calibration. Overall, this study validates the robustness of the SACC pipeline and introduces a replicable framework for evaluating UW image colour restoration. Beyond methodological advances, the findings highlight the potential of the pipeline to support cultural heritage documentation, archaeological interpretation, and long-term preservation of submerged sites.
The study described below aims to confirm the potential of UAV-based multispectral imagery as a flexible and cost-effective tool to detect possible buried archaeological structures, expanding upon previous approaches based on satellite or traditional airborne data. In parallel, the authors investigate the role of such imagery within a conjectured workflow that incorporates multispectral analysis as a preliminary, extensive, and non-invasive step in archaeological prospection strategies. The study evaluates the performance of a commercial sensor and analyses spectral signatures by generating index maps within the significant context of Iulia Felix Praedia in Pompeii (Italy). A significant opportunity was the possibility of acquiring multispectral data in the hortus area, previously investigated through non-invasive geophysical surveys and archaeological excavations. The UAV photogrammetric flight, as well as the subsequent analyses, focused on the visual interpretation and geolocated examination of vegetation and soil index maps, accurately selected among those available, considering the UAV-acquired band dataset. This approach enhanced the features of the complex hortus environment, where natural elements alternate with numerous man-made structures. These analyses led to the detection of anomalies consistent with those previously identified by the aforementioned investigations, alongside additional anomalies distributed across the study area. The detected anomalies were further analysed and synthesised; this involved generating a confidence map based on the frequency of anomaly occurrence across the analysed index maps. The consistency between detected anomalies and previous investigations’ results underlines the potential for continued research on processing multispectral data captured by UAVs. Thanks to such data, a valuable alternative to satellite imagery was provided due to their much higher spatial resolution, enabling rapid and cost-effective campaigns to plan more targeted geophysical and archaeological investigations. The findings also validate the hypothesised workflow involving the use of multispectral imagery as a preliminary, extensive, and non-invasive tool to define excavation areas’ perimeters and, subsequently, guide targeted analyses.
Forensic facial approximation methods are implemented in bioarchaeology to visualise the appearances of individuals from the past. This study introduces the first three-dimensional (3D) facial approximation of a pre-Columbian individual from the Caribbean, and specifically from Cuba, with intentional cranial modification (ICM). The research team designed a pipeline based on verified methods and documented the steps followed to produce the facial approximation. A detailed digital model of a pre-Columbian skull was created using high-resolution structured-light scans. Biological profile and ICM type were determined. The workflow followed standardised approximation methods to predict soft-tissue thickness and morphological facial features, while photos of Native-descendant Cuban populations were additionally considered. The final model was sculpted and textured with professional 3D modelling and digital illustration software to achieve a realistic representation. Research results suggest that the skull corresponds to an adult female with fronto-occipital ICM. Morphological indicators informed the reconstruction of a rectangular face with prominent cheekbones, a broad nose, and a subtle cleft chin. Eye placement followed anatomical parameters, and lip projection reflected maxillary prognathism for thicker lips. Ear positioning adhered to craniofacial standards; pigmentation and hair colour values were based on genetic studies of modern-day Native American populations. The final model was rendered with controlled lighting to achieve a portrait-like appearance, balancing anatomical fidelity and visual realism. Despite the methodological limitations of facial approximations, the results obtained expand understanding of the identities of pre-Columbian people in the Caribbean, and of their human history and cultural evolution in the Americas. This project goes beyond giving a face to a pre-Columbian individual: it opens a window to expand the value of bioarchaeological museum collections for both the general public and researchers in this field. Ultimately, the objective is to contribute to the increasing efforts to decolonise museum narratives, ethically representing a face from Caribbean past populations.
Este trabajo presenta un enfoque innovador para la valorización y difusión del patrimonio arquitectónico en peligro, tomando como caso de estudio el Monasterio de Nuestra Señora del Risco. A través de imágenes generadas a partir de un modelo tridimensional (3D) y de una visita virtual 4D, se busca conectar la reconstrucción histórica del monasterio en su momento de máximo esplendor, el siglo XVIII, con su estado actual, mostrando las transformaciones sufridas a lo largo del tiempo. La reconstrucción virtual integra diversos aspectos del edificio: elementos arquitectónicos, características del emplazamiento y posibles funcionalidades. Asimismo, se ha incorporado a la visita virtual información relativa a la actual ubicación de elementos arquitectónicos originarios del monasterio, actualmente deslocalizados. Este enfoque demuestra las capacidades interpretativas y divulgativas de las técnicas digitales que, a pesar de sus limitaciones, contribuyen significativamente a una mejor comprensión del pasado. De igual forma, se plantea como objetivo la identificación de bienes deslocalizados originarios de un bien patrimonial en peligro. Este proyecto, además de transmitir la riqueza arquitectónica del monasterio, resalta su importancia histórica y cultural. La cuidadosa representación de los elementos decorativos, mobiliario e iluminación interior permite recrear la atmósfera de oración, trabajo y vida comunitaria que caracterizó a este espacio monástico. Con ello también se ofrece una visión enriquecida del legado histórico y se promueve su valorización y conservación. El edificio estudiado presenta una singular distribución en planta, fruto de lo accidentado del terreno y de su origen ligado al culto a la roca de la cueva. Esto ha supuesto un particular reto en la reconstrucción, precisando un análisis de los restos (incluyendo adquisición de datos geométricos con fotogrametría); además, se realizó su comparación con otros ejemplos de patrimonio abulense que, si bien presentan elementos comunes, tienen en su mayoría plantas más canónicas que el caso de estudio planteado.
La documentación digital y en 3D del patrimonio arqueológico se ha convertido en las últimas décadas en una metodología de trabajo indispensable para la generación de conocimiento histórico, tanto en el ámbito científico como para la divulgación. No obstante, su puesta en práctica para el estudio de grandes espacios está condicionada a la conservación de estructuras accesibles y comprensibles desde un punto de vista arqueo-arquitectónico; ello ha llevado en muchas ocasiones a su aplicación mayoritaria en estructuras conservadas al aire libre o en ámbito rural como puedan ser las villae. En este sentido, el presente artículo lleva a cabo una lectura integral arqueo-arquitectónica y de los programas ornamentales de la casa romana de la calle Ramírez de las Casas Deza en Córdoba, denominada como casa del Bailío. Actualmente se conserva bajo el hotel Hospes Palacio del Bailío; el objetivo es definir arqueológica y visualmente las distintas fases de uso de la vivienda. Para tal fin, se ha llevado a cabo la documentación de los restos existentes mediante fotogrametría y aplicando diversas herramientas para el análisis y restitución de los programas ornamentales, como Dstretch y Adobe Illustrator. Junto a esto, los datos planimétricos se han integrado en plano que ha permitido ubicar la vivienda en la planta de la ciudad romana y generar un modelo 3D por fases mediante Blender. Este trabajo se posiciona como pionero en el análisis holístico que comprende un estudio sobre los pavimentos, los programas decorativos, la arquitectura y urbanismo, ofreciéndonos una nueva visión sobre la vivienda a nivel cronológico y constructivo; supone el primer caso aplicado en la ciudad de Córdoba. Ello permite disponer de un recurso de gran valor divulgativo para la comprensión del patrimonio arqueológico cordobés por parte de sus habitantes y visitantes.
This study presents the virtual reconstruction of the Punic-Hellenistic defensive system of Do & ntilde;a Blanca Castle (CBD) through the use of virtual archaeology, which has allowed considerable progress in the understanding of the polyorcetic techniques of this chronology in the south of the Iberian Peninsula. Applying new technologies, such as geo-referenced digital photogrammetry and 3D architectural modelling, has been key in the detailed documentation of the settlement's defensive structures. This approach has revealed a modular design and planning common to other contemporary fortifications, suggesting a high level of military organisation and strategy in this key settlement during the Second Roman-Carthaginian War. The main contribution made by this study is the reconstructive hypothesis of the CBD defensive system, which has improved the understanding of Punic-Hellenistic fortification in the Iberian Peninsula. Thanks to this analysis, common planning patterns have been identified in this type of military construction, revealing a modular design and functionality in the defensive organisation. Among the most outstanding elements of this reconstruction is the finding of the existence of postern gate, i.e. openings that would have been used to allow the exit or entry of defensive troops, thus carrying out an active defence of the fortification. This characteristic reinforces the idea of strategic military planning, as each defensive system component was aimed at improving the site's protection capacity in a war context. The linking of the fortification overall structure with the artillery torsion machines typical of the period has also been a revealing perspective; it shows that the builders were designing both passive defences (walls and towers) and advanced military devices for the active defence of the settlement. Another crucial aspect of this study is that classical sources, such as the writings of Philo of Byzantium, have been used which have been instrumental in the development of reconstructive hypotheses. Ancient treatises offer a valuable perspective that helps to guide the archaeological finds interpretation, providing a theoretical framework for understanding how these defensive systems were organised and functioned in Antiquity. Philo of Byzantium, in particular, was an expert in fortifications and poliorcetic, and his artillery machines and fortification elements descriptions have allowed comparison of the structures exhumed in the CBD with other fortifications of the same period. The virtual reconstruction and detailed analysis of the defensive system of the CBD has been possible thanks to the implementation of virtual archaeology, which has allowed us to generate our own methodology and workflow. The results analysis, study and dissemination have improved the transfer of knowledge to the specialised public and society in general. Virtual archaeology, despite its recent inclusion in the academic world, has become an essential discipline for promoting research and scientific traceability in the virtual reconstructions carried out to date. Although its theoretical postulates are somewhat outdated, due to the constant advance of technologies and the traditional conservative perspective of current studies on history or archaeology, carrying out this type of specific work promotes the dynamisation of the discipline. The implementation of the whole theoretical-practical corpus, from the theory itself to the tools and protocols developed in the last decade, has emphasized the substantial differences in the current situation of the discipline, which should be addressed in the future, in specific debate forums. Despite the significant advances achieved through virtual archaeology and comparative analysis with classical sources, the study underlines how important further research is. Further site documentation is needed, as well as a general research plan for this major protohistoric site. The comparison of the CBD with other archaeological sites enriches our knowledge of Punic poliorcetic in general, and of the military development of these settlements in the historical developments of the time. Specific analyses in this regard can provide a broader historical context and an overview of the different sites located in the south of the peninsula, thus improving the understanding of these fortifications strategic role in the Bay of Cadiz in particular, during the Second Roman-Carthaginian War.
Among the different types of popular house styles found in Spain, we encounter the unusual case of cave dwellings. In the Valencian Community; we find them in the villages of Paterna, Godella, Rocafort, Moncada, B & eacute;tera, Ribarroja and Villamarchante. In the mid 19th century, the population living in cave dwellings reached significant numbers, thus constituting an important typology of today's local architectural heritage. This case study can be framed in the broader field of the Underground Built Heritage (UBH), so including some of the aspects, factors and issues which may have influenced the strategies and tools used in the acquisition data phase. In this article, we present the methodologies and workflows used for the terrestrial laser scanning digital survey -through comparison with commonly used methodologies for this specific kind of heritage- and the subsequent graphic design surrounding the necessary architectural plans, carried out on a case study: Betera's cave dwellings. Making use of the Visual Inertial System (VIS) technology integrated into the tool, it was possible to achieve comprehensive coverage of the case of study while ensuring high efficiency in the heritage surveying process. The digital documentation obtained is, beyond doubt, the fundamental tool for the knowledge and conservation of semi-abandoned heritage assets; only a few caves are occupied today, and most of them show a state of significant damage. Starting from the survey process, the methodological issues peculiar to the typology of the case study, i.e. underground architecture in an urban setting, which are involved in the survey project drafting are analysed, also taking into account those aspects related to the definition of surveying standards. Computational methodologies are also proposed, through the implementation of an algorithmic definition -reusable for similar case studies- that can help us to deepen our knowledge of the artefact, also in a broader perspective of process automation and informative enrichment of the obtained models. The results obtained serve as significant documentation of a relevant typology of the local architectural heritage and provide a starting point for further analysis on optimising survey planning for this peculiar type of scenario.
This article examines mobility in the Roman mining micro-region of Almad & eacute;n, focusing on the road networks that facilitated the extraction and transport of cinnabar (minium). This region is located in the southeastern part of the province of Ciudad Real, bordering the provinces of Badajoz and C & oacute;rdoba. Through an interdisciplinary approach, combining historical and archaeological analysis with Geographic Information System (GIS) tools, the authors reconstruct the secondary mobility network and examine its role in the territorial and economic organisation of the region during the Roman period. The research employs the MADO (Optimal Displacement Accumulation Model) and GIS technologies to simulate the routes that connected mining centres to major distribution hubs, such as C & oacute;rdoba, through primary routes like the Corduba-Sisapo road. The study integrates several datasets, including topographical analyses, ancient literary sources, and archaeological findings, to determine plausible paths for the transport of cinnabar. The findings highlight the strategic significance of 'Cerro de las Monas', identified as a crucial node within the secondary road network. This site's prominence is supported by its advantageous location, proximity to mining centres, and the archaeological remains indicative of its role in facilitating cinnabar transport. In addition, the study explores the wider settlement hierarchy in the region, with Sisapo standing out as the administrative and logistical hub for cinnabar production and distribution. This settlement probably played a pivotal role in controlling regional mobility and overseeing resource management. The research demonstrates how settlements such as 'Cerro de las Monas' and Sisapo functioned collaboratively to optimise cinnabar extraction and distribution. Sisapo's position as the mining capital of Hispania consolidated its role in connecting local and imperial economic networks. From Sisapo, cinnabar would have reached C & oacute;rdoba, where it was integrated into the larger Roman transport system, enabling its distribution across the Empire. Methodologically, the use of the MADO is particularly valuable to study areas where primary infrastructure left minimal physical traces. By simulating optimal routes based on topography, resource accessibility, and distances between settlements, this approach offers a new way to reconstruct mobility systems in historically complex landscapes. Additionally, GIS technology contributes to a comprehensive visualisation of the landscape, enhancing our understanding of how mobility networks evolved and operated within their historical contexts. These digital tools not only allow the reconstruction of ancient routes but also provide a framework for exploring human-environment interactions and the socio-economic dynamics of Roman mining regions. This article also reflects on the broader implications of network analysis in archaeology, particularly its potential to explore the intersection of human activities and natural landscapes. By applying these methods to the Almad & eacute;n mining micro-region, the research offers a case study that underscores the importance of integrating digital tools with traditional archaeological approaches. The insights gained here can serve as a methodological reference for future studies focused on mobility, resource management, and territorial organisation in other Roman provinces. Finally, the article situates the Almad & eacute;n mining region within the broader economic framework of the Roman Empire. Hispania's ability to efficiently manage cinnabar extraction and transport solidified its position as a vital supplier of mercury. The research underlines the value of hierarchical resource management in sustaining the economy and demonstrates how local dynamics in mining regions could influence larger imperial systems. In conclusion, this study underscores the worth of interdisciplinary approaches for understanding mobility networks in mining regions. By reconstructing the infrastructure and logistics of the Almad & eacute;n region, it contributes not only to the historical understanding of Roman Hispania but also to the methodological advancement of landscape archaeology. The results of this research provide a foundation for comparative studies in Roman mining and mobility systems, offering new perspectives on natural resources organisation and exploitation in the ancient world.
The mechanical earthworks caused by the construction of a wastewater treatment plant in the municipality of Salar (Granada, Spain) (Fig. 1) in November 2004, brought to light various material remains dating from Roman times. After several years of archaeological interventions, and fundamentally, since the archaeological direction was taken over by a scientific team from the University of Granada in 2016, the Roman villa of Salar has been placed among one of the most important agricultural facilities of Roman Hispania, thanks to its exceptional architecture and the good conservation of its decorative elements as well. Only a large part of the aristocratic residence has been excavated. This constitutes a minimal section of what must have been an enormous rural exploitation, in view of the wealth and luxury shown by the excavated sections of the pars urbana corresponding to the Late Empire. The villa's construction during the 4th century AD entailed a profound transformation of the landscape of the Canuto site. The articulation of the different rooms of the villa on terraces, on at least three different levels, made it necessary to carry out important work to lower and cut the terrain, which had a decisive effect on the buildings described above. The architecture and decorative elements of the pars urbana, constructed according to the orders of its dominus, help us to understand the social realities of this rural enclave in the 4th century AD and the magnitude of the changes which took place (Fig. 2). Next to the peristyle is an apsidal space that opens directly onto the northwestern ambulacrum in the central part, on the same axis as the entrance to the triclinium. Of these rooms, the most outstanding is located on an axis with the peristyle and the triclinium, marking the spaces' profound symmetry and theatricality. Regarding the research project, since its inception, it has been characterised by pursuing three fundamental objectives: research, conservation and transfer of the knowledge generated to society, based on an interdisciplinary work methodology, where the implementation of digital techniques for archaeological documentation has been an essential basis for its development (Rosa Henestrosa, Rom & aacute;n Punz & oacute;n, Moreno-Alcaide & Ruiz Montes, 2022). The methodology used in the reconstruction is based on the criteria established for Virtual Archaeology, based on the Seville Principles (L & oacute;pez-Menchero & Grande, 2011). To do this, we formed an interdisciplinary team made up of professionals from archaeology, architecture and engineering, which has made it possible to generate a model with high historical rigour and great technical quality. Starting from the previously analysed work, generated from the interpretations of the archaeological excavations, a new planimetry was developed in vector Computer-Aided Design (CAD) format that would later allow it to be used as a basis for the three-dimensional (3D) modelling of the Roman villa (Fig. 5). With this vector planimetry, the hypothetical architectural sections of the building were also created, as well as the geometric bases for the geometric mosaics that the villa had. The first volumetric fit in the 3D modelling phase also served to answer questions related to the heights of the rooms and the resolution of the building's roofs. The Autodesk 3D Studio Max software was used to create the 3D modelling, and the Adobe Photoshop and Adobe Substance 3D Painter were used to create the textures. The project worked on the preparation of two different models of the 3D recreation, one for rendering infographics and 3D panoramas using the V-Ray rendering engine from Chaos Group and another for rendering in the Unreal Engine rendering engine from Epic Games. The result can be consulted through a public website where the user can take a virtual visit to the current state of the excavation and the reconstructive interpretation in 3D, with different information on the historical and building phases, the planimetry and location, an audio-visual and 3D infographics, both in Spanish and English.
This article focuses on the analysis of the stone extraction process at the Rodadero de los Lobos quarries (Piquin FarmhouseC & oacute;rdoba) using Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data. A LiDAR system was mounted on an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) to survey these quarries, collecting previously unpublished data from the terrain's surface. The dense vegetation and steep topography of the area had made it difficult to conduct traditional surface surveys until now. The primary objective of this study is to assess the extent of the exploitation of these natural resources, which have been in use since ancient times. The new data reveals that Piquin Farmhouse is the largest stone supply source in the C & oacute;rdoba highlands. Research on ancient quarry exploitation in the highlands of C & oacute;rdoba has been minimal due to the challenging geography of the region. This contrasts sharply with provinces such as Seville, M & aacute;laga, and Huelva, where extensive studies have been conducted due to better accessibility. The lack of prior research in C & oacute;rdoba highlights the significance of this study, especially considering the scarcity of similar archaeological investigations in the region. The findings of this work contribute to the broader understanding of ancient quarrying practices in the Iberian Peninsula. This study builds on previous research concerning the stone material used in the ancient city of Corduba and its surrounding administrative region, 'conventus cordobensis,' as well as studies on Roman quarries in the province of Baetica. The quarry fronts identified through the LiDAR surveys are relatively small, which aligns with the size of ancient quarries-Roman quarries, in general, were not large-scale operations. However, some of these quarry fronts may have been expanded and altered during the medieval period, erasing the Roman features and potentially distorting the original site of stone extraction for C & oacute;rdoba's famed building materials. Aerial LiDAR technology offers a high point density per square meter, which, coupled with its multi-return feature and semiautomatic classification of the point cloud, proved invaluable in addressing the challenges posed by the rugged terrain. The high-density data, along with the efficiency and speed of the acquisition and processing, provided detailed and accurate information. These data were processed using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), enabling the extraction of relevant information while filtering out unnecessary data. This process allowed the generation of both basic and derived geospatial products, providing a comprehensive visual representation of the study area. By analysing the data, researchers were able to store, visualise, and analyse large geographical areas, generating valuable insights and reducing costs and time compared to traditional ground surveys. Through these LiDAR surveys, five areas showing archaeological anomalies were identified, suggesting the presence of quarry fronts. These quarry fronts are located to the south of the Piqu & iacute;n Farmhouse hill, facing the city of C & oacute;rdoba and the ancient roads that likely connected the region with other parts of the Iberian Peninsula. The data analysis allowed for an approximate estimation of the volume of materials extracted from these quarries, providing a better understanding of the scope of ancient quarrying activities. The findings confirmed that Rodadero de los Lobos is one of the largest stone sources in the mountainous region of C & oacute;rdoba. One of the key conclusions of this study is that LiDAR technology has proven to be an invaluable tool in identifying ancient quarries, especially in areas where the terrain's inaccessibility makes traditional field surveys difficult. While the technology generates a vast amount of data, it cannot entirely replace on-site archaeological surveys. Instead, the two methods complement each other, offering a solid foundation for understanding ancient quarrying practices. LiDAR can aid in the planning and prioritisation of archaeological fieldwork, guiding researchers to the most promising areas for in-depth investigation.
This study explores the speculative digital reconstruction of an unrealized circular cloister designed by Donato Bramante as part of his project for the Tempietto of San Pietro in Montorio, Rome, circa 1502–1510. By referencing Sebastiano Serlio’s surviving drawing—the only contemporary representation of this project—and employing 3D digital modeling, the study examines two potential configurations for the cloister, shedding light on Bramante’s integration of Vitruvian principles into Renaissance architectural theory. The research highlights the challenges posed by the Tempietto’s unique spatial constraints, as well as the role of classical architectural archetypes, particularly the paradigm of the column and architrave in classical designs. Documenting the reconstruction process, this study applies digital reconstruction methodologies, including the Apollonio-Fallavollita-Foschi uncertainty scale, to explore the architectural and structural solutions and the references Bramante might have considered. By addressing whether an architrave- or arch-based system might have been proposed, the research provides insights into Bramante’s architectural intent. This analysis emphasizes the potential of digital reconstructions in addressing historical designs characterized by high levels of uncertainty and interpreting lost architectural works. As part of the international CoVHer Project, this research demonstrates the value of digital tools in cultural heritage preservation and their potential to reinterpret lost or unrealized architectural works. These findings enrich the historiography of architecture, offering new approaches to verifying and reimagining historical designs. Future studies could extend these methodologies to explore other speculative reconstructions, bridging historical inquiry with contemporary visualization techniques.
