Background: Contact lenses (CLs) are widely used for refractive correction, therapeutic purposes and cosmetic enhancement. However, inadequate knowledge and poor hygiene practices can lead to complications such as microbial keratitis.Objective: To assess the knowledge and attitude towards the use of contact lenses and practices regarding their use among medical and allied health college students in North India.Methods: A cross-sectional questionnaire-based study was conducted among 157 students from medical and allied health institutions across North India between March and June 2025. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire consisting of demographic information and items assessing knowledge, attitude, and practices related to contact lens use. Descriptive statistics were used to summarise responses, while inferential analyses including Chi-square tests and logistic regression were performed to explore factors associated with poor hygiene practices.Results: The mean age of participants was 27.5 years (range 18–36). Of the 157 respondents, 52.9% were females and 46.5% were males. Approximately 87.9% had heard of contact lenses, while 29.9% had actually used them. Most participants recognised that contact lenses could be used for both refractive correction and cosmetic purposes. Knowledge regarding complications due to CL use was generally satisfactory. Nevertheless, gaps in knowledge about cleaning, storage, and disinfection practices were identified. Among contact lens users (n = 47), 66.0% reported at least one risky hygiene behaviour. Most of these participants (87.9%) noted washing hands before handling lenses, and 24.2% noted removal of lenses before sleeping. However, 11.5% admitted showering while wearing lenses, and 11.5% had shared lenses with others. Only 61.8% reported scheduled aftercare visits, and a proportion of users reported unsafe practices such as water exposure and lens sharing.Conclusion: Knowledge regarding contact lens use was high, but gaps in hygiene practices remain. Educational programs emphasising safe CL handling, avoiding water exposure, and the importance of follow-up visits are essential to prevent complications.
Background: Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome (PRES) is an acute neurovascular syndrome characterized by vasogenic cerebral edema and heterogeneous neurological manifestations. Although most commonly associated with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, PRES may also develop during the postpartum period, when persistent cerebrovascular vulnerability and atypical clinical presentations can delay diagnosis and increase the risk of severe maternal neurological complications. Objective: To critically review the evidence on postpartum PRES, focusing on its clinical presentation, pathophysiological mechanisms, diagnostic approach, neuroimaging characteristics, management strategies, and maternal outcomes, while examining the evolving concept of PRES as the cerebral manifestation of systemic maternal endotheliopathy. Methods: A critical narrative review was conducted through a structured literature search of the PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases. Case reports, case series, observational studies, neuroradiological investigations, and review articles addressing postpartum PRES were critically appraised and synthesized using a thematic approach. Key findings: Postpartum PRES is increasingly recognized as a heterogeneous neurovascular syndrome whose clinical spectrum extends beyond the classical triad of headache, seizures, and hypertension. Recognition of normotensive presentations, atypical neuroimaging patterns, and delayed postpartum onset has challenged the traditional view of PRES as a disorder driven exclusively by severe hypertension. Emerging evidence increasingly suggests that systemic endothelial injury, inflammatory activation, angiogenic imbalance, and impaired cerebral autoregulation may act synergistically in the pathogenesis of the syndrome. Magnetic resonance imaging is the diagnostic cornerstone, while early recognition, appropriate blood pressure control, magnesium sulfate administration when indicated, and multidisciplinary management are associated with favorable neurological outcomes. Conclusion: The available evidence suggests that postpartum PRES is more appropriately viewed as the cerebral manifestation of systemic endothelial dysfunction occurring within a uniquely vulnerable postpartum physiological environment rather than solely as a neurological complication of hypertensive pregnancy. This integrated perspective helps explain the clinical heterogeneity of the syndrome and underscores the importance of early diagnosis, continued postpartum surveillance, and timely intervention to optimize maternal outcomes.
Primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) is a common endocrine disorder characterized by inappropriate secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH), resulting in hypercalcemia and disturbances in calcium-phosphate metabolism. Nephrolithiasis represents one of the most frequent and clinically significant renal manifestations of the disease and may serve as an early indicator of PHPT. This review summarizes the current diagnostic approach to PHPT in patients presenting with nephrolithiasis, with particular emphasis on laboratory evaluation. Key biochemical parameters, including serum calcium, ionized calcium, parathyroid hormone, phosphate, vitamin D status, and urinary calcium excretion, are discussed in the context of diagnosis, differential diagnosis, and postoperative follow-up. Special attention is given to the differentiation between PHPT, familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia, and secondary hyperparathyroidism. In addition, the review outlines the complementary role of imaging modalities in preoperative localization and discusses the indications for parathyroidectomy in patients with renal involvement. An integrated clinical, laboratory, and imaging approach is essential for accurate diagnosis, risk stratification, and individualized management of patients with PHPT-associated nephrolithiasis.
Maxillary sinus defects present a significant challenge in oral and maxillofacial surgery, particularly in cases associated with trauma, infection, or oncological resection. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of current surgical techniques for the closure of maxillary sinus defects and to highlight their clinical applicability through selected case presentations. Different reconstructive techniques are reviewed, including local and regional flaps, bone substitute materials combined with biomembranes, and microvascular composite flaps. Each approach has specific indications depending on defect characteristics and patient-related factors. The article includes clinical images from the archive of the surgeons at the Department of Otorhinolaryngology of Dr. Georgi Stranski University Hospital in Pleven. A satisfactory management of maxillary sinus defects requires an individualized approach and appropriate technique selection. Contemporary surgical methods offer reliable outcomes and contribute to improved patients’ quality of life.
Advanced rhinophyma is usually treated surgically to remove excess tissue and restore the normal shape of the nose. Several techniques, such as electrosurgery, laser resurfacing, coblation, and dermabrasion, may be used alone or in combination depending on disease severity and patient factors. We report the case of a 67-year-old male with type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension who presented with giant rhinophyma. Considering the patient’s comorbidities and the increased risk of postoperative complications, a surgical approach resulting in minimal intraoperative bleeding was considered essential. Although coblation alone is often effective for tissue reduction with limited bleeding, in this case, it was insufficient due to the excessive volume of hypertrophic tissue, so we combined electrosurgical and coblation approaches to remove tissue carefully, control bleeding, preserve nasal structure, and minimize scarring and delayed healing in a patient with poorly controlled diabetes.
Background: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia worldwide, with prominent hippocampal and medial temporal lobe atrophy. Limbic-predominant (LP) AD has been proposed as a distinct subtype, but distinctions from typical AD remain unclear. This systematic review evaluates clinical, radiological, and immunohistological differences between LP and typical AD. Methods: Following PRISMA guidelines, PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science were searched. Data on baseline characteristics, clinical, radiological, and immunohistological features were extracted. Screening was performed with Rayyan.ai, and study quality was assessed using the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale. Results: From 211 articles, 21 studies were included, totaling 11,315 patients: 1,178 (15.7%) LP, 4,159 (36.7%) typical AD, and 5,378 (47.6%) other presentations. Weighted averages: education 24.31 years (LP) vs. 17.15 years (AD); age at onset 77.36 years (LP) vs. 72.33 years (AD); disease duration 8.43 years (LP) vs. 8.95 years (AD). Clinical presentations were similar, with cognitive impairment and memory deficits predominant. MRI and FDG-PET revealed lower hippocampal volume and higher metabolism in LP. Tau-PET showed lower R2 relaxation in parietal, cingulate, and cuneus regions and elevated hippocampal neurofibrillary tangles. Immunohistology revealed higher hippocampal tau burden and more TDP-43 inclusions in LP compared to typical AD. Conclusion: LP and typical AD exhibit notable radiological and immunohistological differences, though clinical presentations overlap. Current evidence cannot definitively classify LP as a distinct subtype or separate disease. Further studies are required to clarify these distinctions.
Background: This randomized controlled trial investigated the effects of recruitment maneuvers on arterial oxygenation and lung compliance in patients undergoing robotic-assisted prostatectomy in the steep Trendelenburg position. Hemodynamic parameters were also monitored, with no significant differences observed among groups.Methods: Sixty patients were randomly assigned to three groups (n = 20 each).• Group 1 received 0 cm H2O positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP),• Group 2 received 5 cm H2O PEEP,• Group 3 received 5 cm H2O PEEP combined with two recruitment maneuvers, applied 5 minutes after CO2 insufflation and 5 minutes after desufflation.Pneumoperitoneum was maintained at 12 mmHg. Anesthesia was maintained with sevoflurane and remifentanil infusion (FiO2 50%), titrated to maintain end-tidal CO2 (EtCO2) between 30–36 mmHg. Balanced crystalloid solutions were administered at 4–6 mL/kg/h, adjusted according to hemodynamic parameters. Hemodynamic variables, arterial blood gases, and respiratory mechanics were recorded at predefined intraoperative and postoperative time points.Results: Group 3 demonstrated significantly higher PaO2 and improved static and dynamic lung compliance compared to Group 1 (PaO2 at T3: 155.0 ± 51.3 mmHg vs. 121.2 ± 25.2 mmHg; p = 0.014). EtCO2 and peak heart rate (PHR) were significantly lower in Group 3 than in Group 1 (p = 0.018 and p = 0.007, respectively), though these findings were interpreted cautiously given potential vagal stimulation. Groups 2 and 3 both showed significantly better compliance and oxygenation than Group 1 (p < 0.001 and p = 0.006, respectively). No significant hemodynamic instability was observed.Conclusion: Recruitment maneuvers, when combined with moderate PEEP, may enhance intraoperative oxygenation and lung compliance during robotic prostatectomy without inducing significant hemodynamic compromise; however, the clinical relevance of these physiological improvements warrants further investigation in larger-scale studies.
Introduction: It is well known that sleep-related breathing disorders like obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and obesity hypoventilation syndrome (OHS) decrease quality of life and increase morbidity and mortality. OSA patients with good adherence to nighttime CPAP report improvement of their daily functioning, social interactions, emotional functioning, daytime sleepiness, and other symptoms. In OHS, both CPAP and non-invasive ventilation (NIV) show improvement in quality of life if prescribed accurately.Methods: We recruited 60 newly diagnosed obese patients with OSA and divided them into two groups: isolated – iOSA (n = 32) and OHS-OSA (n = 28). The health-related quality of life of all subjects was measured at baseline and after 3 months of treatment via the Interviewer Administered version of the EQ-5D-5L questionnaire.Results: The baseline EQ-5D value of the iOSA group (Median: 0.836; IQR: 0.113) was significantly higher than that of the OHS-OSA overlap syndrome (Median: 0.67; IQR: 0.209) (p < 0.001). Three months after treatment, both groups had increased their EQ-5D value significantly: The iOSA group from median: 0.836 with IQR: 0.113 to median:1 with IQR: 0 (p < 0.001), and the OHS-OSA group from median: 0.67 with IQR: 0,209 to median: 0.874 with IQR: 0.137 (p < 0.001) respectively. When we compared the EQ-5D values after treatment between the two groups, we observed the same statistically significant difference as before treatment (p < 0.001).Conclusion: NIV therapy makes a huge difference in the HRQoL of OHS-OSA patients, though it does not reach a subjective perception of full health like in subjects with iOSA.
Introduction: Artificial Intelligence (AI) has the potential to transform healthcare in various ways. It can turn large amounts of patient data into actionable information, improve public health surveillance, accelerate health responses & produce faster & more targeted research & development. In context of developing countries, the potential of AI in public health needs to be assessed. This study enables a comprehensive exploration of clinicians' views, aiming to identify actionable insights for addressing barriers to AI implementation in healthcare systems.Methodology: It is a cross-sectional study in which a pre-validated questionnaire developed. A purposive sample of 94 clinicians from various specialities taken in the study. Data is collected using a structured questionnaire designed after an extensive literature review & expert consultation. Data were analyzed using the appropriate statistical test.Results: The study identified key challenges hindering AI adoption in healthcare, based on responses from 94 clinicians. The primary barriers include insufficient infrastructure (68.5%), lack of AI-specific training (44.7%) & limited collaboration between healthcare sectors (63.8%). Clinicians' skepticism (58%) about AI’s decision-making accuracy and ethical concerns regarding patient data security (74.5%) were significant obstacles. Fragmented healthcare data systems (70%) further hindered the effective AI integration.Conclusion: While AI has substantial potential to enhance healthcare delivery, particularly in optimizing operations and personalizing treatment, addressing these challenges through comprehensive strategies involving ethical frameworks, robust data management & stakeholder engagement is crucial for successful implementation & acceptance of AI technologies in clinical practice.
Objective: To summarize contemporary clinical algorithms for the management of high-risk pregnancy and to integrate international recommendations with regional clinical experience.Methods: Narrative review of international guidelines (ACOG, FIGO, NICE, WHO) and peer-reviewed literature, including data from Bulgarian obstetric practice.Results: Algorithm-based management improves early risk stratification, standardizes care, and supports individualized decision-making in hypertensive disorders, gestational diabetes, fetal growth abnormalities, and combined maternal–fetal risk.Conclusion: Clinical algorithms represent a cornerstone of modern high-risk pregnancy management. Integration of regional data enhances applicability without compromising international relevance.
The review critically synthesizes existing evidence on optimizing gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) diagnostic procedures, focusing on best practices for early detection of at-risk mothers to address related obstetric complications. The review adopts the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines for systematic literature reviews and dissemination of study findings. The methodological framework follows three stages: planning, conducting the review, and reporting outcomes. The International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Group (IADPSG) screening criteria were more inclusive than those of other protocols, but no significant differences in maternal outcomes were reported between the protocols. One-step (75-g OGTT) performed relatively accurately compared with two-step screening (50-g GCT plus 75-g OGTT), even though no significant differences were reported, and the two-step screening was the more preferred diagnostic approach among participants. We found no statistically significant difference between early and routine Oral Glucose Tolerance Tests (OGTTs) in pregnancy outcomes. The review findings highlight the significant role of optimized diagnostic approaches in early detection of GDM to minimize the effects on pregnancy and related obstetric outcomes, as well as to reduce the incidence of diabetes mellitus later in life.
We present three cases of reconstruction of complex skin defects using pedicled flaps (gracilis, pectoralis major, and TRAM), all of which postoperatively exhibited venous congestion, characterized by cyanosis, edema, and dark bleeding on pinprick. While cumulative comorbidities increased the overall risk, potential mechanical causes included pedicle torsion or compression, hematoma, and skin–muscle island mismatch. Empirical treatment included therapeutic anticoagulation, decompression (partial suture removal and punctures), and operative revision when indicated. We compared these measures against existing literature. Because venous congestion led to partial flap loss in our series, we propose prevention and management strategies, including meticulous planning, gentle surgical technique, and early intervention, all of which are crucial for successful flap salvage.
Eye movements represent an objective, quantitative indicator of the integrity of cognitive and perceptual processes. Since the beginning of the 20th century, research has shown that individuals with schizophrenia demonstrate characteristic deviations in smooth pursuit, -egulation, and visual exploration behaviour. These oculomotor alterations are linked to dysfunctions in attention, executive control, and perceptual organization, and have been discussed as potential biomarkers of impaired neural network regulation. More recent work further implicates disturbances in visual attention and integration, as well as reduced executive control over oculomotor activity, which may manifest in altered gaze behaviour.Building on this literature, the present study examined whether free-viewing eye-movement patterns capture markers of restricted exploration and altered scanpath organization under ecologically valid conditions. We recorded eye movements during passive viewing of landscape and abstract images in three groups: patients with schizophrenia (n = 30), healthy controls (n = 30), and close relatives (n = 21). Visual exploration was quantified using integrative indices of fixation number and duration (mean/median/total), scanpath length, coverage fraction, spatial dispersion (mean/median; dispersion_x and dispersion_y), center bias, fixations per second, gaze entropy (bits), and saccade metrics. Group and image type were tested in 2 × 2 mixed ANOVA models with FDR correction across metrics.In the patient-control analysis (N = 60), a significant main effect of group was observed across multiple exploration and oculomotor parameters after FDR correction (partial ηp² ≈ .12–.21; pFDR ≤ .032), with no main effect of image type and no group × image type interaction surviving correction, supporting a stimulus-nonspecific alteration of visual exploration in schizophrenia. In the relatives-controls analysis (N = 51), uncorrected trends suggested a more compact scan pattern (reduced dispersion and saccade amplitude). However, no effects remained significant after FDR correction. Overall, free-viewing eye-movement metrics showed medium-to-large, stimulus-nonspecific group differences in schizophrenia, consistent with a restricted and altered exploration mode, whereas potential vulnerability-related signals in first-degree relatives were weaker and did not survive correction, indicating the need for larger samples and/or targeted paradigms with predefined core metrics in familial-risk designs.
Nutrition management in stage IV oncological patients is challenging. Finding a balance between ion, protein, carbohydrate, and lipid intake and output is often nearly impossible. A 36-year-old patient with terminal-stage ovarian cancer and bowel obstruction is presented. She was admitted to the surgery department with complaints of vomiting, abdominal pain, absence of flatulence, and defecation for the last two days. Laboratory findings showed anemia, low protein levels, low potassium, and elevated liver enzymes. Venous infusions were administered to restore nutritional values. Food and liquid intake were stopped. After 6 days of hospital stay, the patient underwent a surgical procedure - a high ileostomy, to restore stool passage. A serious complication occurred - nearly 1600 ml. of stool was excreted from the ileostomy every 24 hours. Combination of medications - loperamide hydrochloride (2 mg daily), continuous venous infusions with lipid and carb-rich solutions, and proper diet managed to decrease the stoma outtake to 600 ml per day. Placing a port-a-cath system provided the patient with an easily managed device, allowing her to continue parenteral nutrition at home and increasing the likelihood of discharge from the hospital.
Abstract: A high serum level of Lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] is inherited, but various chronic kidney diseases (CKD) can cause its secondary elevation because the kidney is involved in its catabolism. These two facts form the basis for the two theories of the causal relationship between high Lp(a) levels and CKD.Purpose: This review aimed to summarize the complex relationships between Lp(a) levels and renal function, focusing on the molecular and cellular mechanisms. Furthermore, it aimed to differentiate between primary (genetically determined) and secondary (non-genetic) elevations of Lp(a) in various forms of CKD.Materials and Methods: We conducted a comprehensive literature search across the following databases: PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and Wiley Online Library, covering the period from January 2010 to February 2025. The search strategy employed keywords such as “Lipoprotein(a)”, “chronic kidney disease”, “renal catabolism”, and “Lp(a) pathophysiology”. Inclusion criteria focused on peer-reviewed meta-analyses, cross-sectional studies with Mendelian randomization, and prospective clinical trials published in English. Studies with fewer than 50 participants or lacking clear markers of renal function were excluded. Data were synthesized through a thematic analysis of molecular mechanisms and a comparative review of clinical outcomes to ensure a robust overview of both genetic and secondary Lp(a) elevations. The research approach follows narrative literature review methodologies. The selection of studies focused on their relevance, the strength of their evidence, and temporal relevance.Results: There is a complex feedback loop between high primary Lp(a) levels, CKD, and the secondary increase in Lp (a). Renal health influences Lp(a) levels, which in turn can further damage the kidney.
The role of Enterobius vermicularis in the pathogenesis of acute appendicitis remains controversial, as it may be associated with appendiceal colic in the absence of actual histological inflammation. A retrospective study was conducted in two hospitals in Spain between June 2016 and January 2021, including six patients with histologically confirmed E. vermicularis infection. 1 two males and four females with a median age of 20 years. All patients presented with right iliac fossa pain and underwent laparoscopic appendectomy. In all cases, the appendix appeared hyperemic without macroscopic signs of acute inflammation, and histological examination confirmed the absence of acute appendicitis. All patients received postoperative mebendazole. No postoperative complications occurred.Enterobius vermicularis may mimic acute appendicitis by causing appendiceal colic, but it is rarely associated with true inflammatory appendicitis. Appendectomy should therefore be performed with caution when the appendix appears non-inflamed, given the possibility of E. vermicularis infection and the associated risk of intra-abdominal contamination.
Virtual reality (VR) is increasingly adopted in surgical education as a safe and controlled environment for developing technical and non-technical skills. Parallel to this, physiological biofeedback has emerged as a promising method for assessing stress, workload, and cognitive performance during complex tasks. This review explores the current evidence on VR and biofeedback in surgical training, highlighting their synergistic potential. We discuss how VR simulations replicate operative scenarios with high fidelity and how biofeedback parameters such as heart rate variability and galvanic skin response can provide objective insights into surgeon performance and stress regulation. We then outline a pilot study design in which novice and experienced surgeons are placed in a VR operating room scenario, with biofeedback metrics recorded. We hypothesise that experienced surgeons will demonstrate more stable physiological responses and superior task performance, reflecting greater resilience and expertise. Such findings could inform adaptive, personalised training models that adjust difficulty levels or provide targeted feedback in real time. Integrating VR and biofeedback into surgical education has the potential to enhance skill acquisition, improve stress management, and bridge the gap between simulation and the operating room.
Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) is one of the most common leukaemias in adults. Although extensive data on its pathogenesis and progression have accumulated, the disease remains chronic and incurable. Marked heterogeneity at every stage of CLL development limits the usefulness of routinely applied risk-stratification criteria. Published research suggests that the course of the disease is associated with oxidative stress and an increased frequency of cytogenetic aberrations. However, current evidence is insufficient to establish a causal relationship between these two factors. CLL patients exhibit a distinct antioxidant profile and decreased intracellular reducing potential. Moreover, levels of both early and late oxidative damage products are higher than normal. Concentrations of malondialdehyde and 8-oxo-dG have been reported to correlate with specific FISH-detected chromosomal aberrations. Future studies are needed to determine the extent to which oxidative biomarkers can improve the diagnostic and prognostic performance of routinely used biochemical and cytogenetic indicators in patients with CLL.
Basal cell carcinoma is the most common malignant tumour in humans. In cases with indistinct morphology on H&E-stained slides, immunohistochemistry may help distinguish basal cell carcinoma from other similar-appearing lesions. Our study aimed to investigate the expression of a marker panel comprising EZH2, Bcl-2, and Ber-EP4 in morphologically diagnosed, CK20-verified cutaneous basal cell carcinomas. Materials and methods: A cross-sectional study of 50 histologically confirmed cases of basal cell carcinoma was conducted. Immunohistochemical staining was performed using the following markers: EZH2, Bcl-2, Ber-EP4, and CK20. Due to the lack of a standardised method for evaluating markers, we adopted and modified the staining index (SI), which semi-quantitatively combines staining intensity and the percentage of positive cells. The results were systematised and interpreted using IBM SPSS. Results: All 50 examined tumours tested negative for CK20 (100%), thereby excluding mimics. All 50 tumours stained positive for EZH2 and Bcl-2 (100%), and only one stained negative for Ber-EP4 (98% positive). We found no association between histological type and EZH2 (p = 0.376), Bcl-2 (p = 0.376), and Ber-EP4 (p = 0.318), respectively, or their co-expression (p = 0.258). High co-expression of two of the three markers was observed in 33 of the 50 examined cases (66%), and a low co-expression in 4 cases (8%). Conclusion: The marker panel demonstrates co-expression of the three markers in the context of negative CK20 in over 90% of the cases. In challenging cases, it is important to consider clinical, morphological, and immunohistochemical features together.
Iron deficiency (ID) remains the most prevalent nutritional deficiency worldwide and a major cause of morbidity in childhood. This review outlines the physiological basis, risk factors, consequences, and prevention strategies for ID and iron deficiency anemia (IDA) in infants, young children, and adolescents. Childhood includes two critical periods of heightened vulnerability—infancy/early childhood and adolescence—when rapid growth markedly increases iron requirements. Preterm birth, low birth weight, exclusive breastfeeding beyond 4–6 months without supplementation, early introduction of cow’s milk, poor dietary habits, menstrual blood loss in adolescent girls, and rapid pubertal growth in boys are identified as key contributors to negative iron balance. Beyond hematologic changes, ID can impair neurodevelopment, cognitive performance, immune function, and behavior, with some deficits persisting long-term even after treatment. Early recognition is essential, and serum ferritin combined with inflammatory markers (CRP) and transferrin saturation represent the most reliable diagnostic indicators. Preventive measures—including delayed cord clamping, timely introduction of iron-rich complementary foods, iron supplementation for at-risk groups, and limiting cow’s milk intake—are crucial to reducing the global burden of ID. Despite advances in understanding its physiology and management, iron deficiency in childhood remains a significant public health challenge requiring targeted screening and effective preventive strategies.
