Background and Aims Tinnitus is one of the most common auditory disorders, affecting millions worldwide. Human studies are valuable for identifying and describing tinnitus; however, animal models are indispensable for gaining deeper insight into pathophysiology, evaluating therapeutic interventions, and investigating neural changes. This study aimed to introduce and compare behavioral conditioning paradigms and electrophysiological assessments for tinnitus evaluation in animal models. Methods A literature search was conducted in PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science databases for studies published up to 2025. Results Until 2006, most studies aimed to confirm that animals can perceive tinnitus and ensure the feasibility of tinnitus assessment in these models. For this purpose, conditioning paradigms were employed. Subsequently, a more objective approach, the gap prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle (GPIAS) method, was introduced, allowing tinnitus evaluation without the need for conditioning or training. However, variability in responses and the need for large sample sizes in gap prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle (GPIAS) led to increased use of auditory electrophysiological assessments, such as auditory brainstem response (ABR), as objective tools to confirm tinnitus (especially salicylate-induced tinnitus). Moreover, some studies have examined the cognitive and emotional aspects of tinnitus in animal models to better understand psychological responses to the condition. Conclusion The combined use of behavioral, electrophysiological, and cognitive indicators may be pivotal for developing more accurate animal models and designing targeted therapeutic interventions, including pharmacological and cognitive-behavioral approaches, for tinnitus and its associated adverse reactions.
Background and Aims Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are highly vulnerable to visual distractions in therapeutic and home environments, which may reduce the effectiveness of rehabilitation interventions. Eye-tracking technology provides a novel tool to objectively quantify visual attention and identify distracting stimuli. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility and test–retest reliability of a desktop-based eye-tracking system in detecting distracting visual elements presented in simulated rehabilitation and home environments for children with ADHD. Methods Sixteen children with ADHD aged 8–12 years (10 boys, 6 girls) participated. Each child viewed a high-resolution panoramic image of a therapeutic room and a home setting displayed on a monitor for 8 seconds in two repeated trials separated by a 15-minute interval. Eye-tracking metrics included fixation duration on task-relevant versus distracting stimuli, number of distractor fixations, and heat map distributions. Reliability was assessed using Pearson correlation and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). Results Mean fixation duration on task-relevant areas was 4.3±0.5 seconds in Trial 1 and 4.4±0.4 seconds in Trial 2. The number of distractor fixations averaged 3.0±1.2 in Trial 1 and 3.1±1.1 in Trial 2. Reliability analyses revealed strong consistency: Fixation duration (r= 0.83, ICC=0.81), distractor fixations (r=0.85, ICC=0.84). Heat maps demonstrated nearly identical gaze patterns across trials. Conclusion Eye-tracking technology demonstrated strong feasibility and test–retest reliability for detecting distracting visual stimuli in rehabilitation and home-like environments for children with ADHD. These findings support its application as an objective, repeatable tool for assessing environmental distractors in clinical and home-based rehabilitation contexts.
Background and Aims Decreased sound tolerance (DST), including hyperacusis and misophonia, is one of the most prominent and disabling sensory features in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and has significant consequences on the social, emotional, and cognitive functioning of these individuals. This phenomenon occurs due to the overlap of multilayered mechanisms in neural pathways and has been reported with high prevalence in individuals with ASD. This study aimed to review the literature on the prevalence, neural mechanisms, assessments, and interventions related to DST in individuals with ASD. Methods This narrative review was conducted by searching for articles between 2000 and 2025 in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The search was performed by combining keywords related to autism, sound sensitivity, DST, hyperacusis, misophonia, prevalence, neural mechanisms, assessment, and interventions. After the initial screening, 91 studies were included. Results DST is significantly more prevalent in the autism population than in the general population, with hyperacusis (affecting approximately 27%-40%) and misophonia (affecting 12%–35% of individuals on the spectrum). Investigation of mechanisms suggests increased central gain, an imbalance in excitation/inhibition ratio, increased auditory cortex sensitivity, pattern changes in subcortical areas, and involvement of the anterior insula and amygdala. Assessments also included questionnaires, measurements of loudness discomfort levels, otoacoustic emissions, electrophysiological indices, and imaging. Interventions included modified cognitive-behavioral therapy, sound therapy, environmental modifications, and virtual/augmented reality technologies. Conclusion DST in ASD is a multifactorial phenomenon that requires multidimensional assessment and integrated interventions. Given its high prevalence and significant impact on functioning, future research should focus on standardizing assessment tools, developing autism-specific treatment protocols, and directly evaluating the effectiveness of interventions with enough samples.
Background and Aims Myopia is a growing global health concern, with its prevalence increasing significantly over recent decades. Understanding the environmental factors contributing to its progression is critical for developing effective interventions to mitigate its impact, particularly in urban settings, such as Tehran Province, Iran, where myopia prevalence is rising. This study aimed to investigate the role of environmental factors in myopia progression in 12-20-year-old individuals with myopia in Tehran Province. Methods In this study, 200 individuals aged 12-20 with a previous history of myopia participated. They were divided into two groups (with and without myopia progression). Myopia was defined as spherical equivalent ≤-0.50, and a myopic shift of at least 0.50 D per year was considered myopia progression. Participants completed a questionnaire regarding various environmental factors. Results Of the 200 participants (118 women and 82 men), 57 had no myopia progression and were placed in group 1, while 143 with myopia progression were placed in group 2. Lower body mass index (BMI) (P=0 .02), odds ratio (OR)=0.906 summer and autumn season births (P=0 .003, OR= 4.47 and P= 0.01, OR=4.17 respectively), shorter sleep duration (P=0.03, OR=5.67 for sleeping less than 6 hours and P=0.02, OR=3.92 for sleeping between 6 and 8 hours) and short reading distance (P=0.03 in bivariate analysis) were significantly associated with myopia progression. The duration of study (P=0.70) and the duration of outdoor activities (P=0.90) were not associated with myopia progression. Conclusion Lower body mass index (BMI), summer and autumn birth seasons, and less than 6 hours of nighttime sleep were associated with higher odds of myopia progression.
Background and Aims Chronic low-grade inflammation is recognized as a key factor in the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and the detrimental effects of cigarette smoking. On the other hand, physical exercise can modulate systemic inflammation through various cellular pathways. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate and compare the effects of 12 weeks of aerobic, resistance, and concurrent training on inflammatory responses in male smokers with MetS and current smokers. Methods This was a quasi-experimental study with a pretest and posttest design. Forty male patients with MetS were randomly assigned to four groups: aerobic exercise, resistance exercise, concurrent exercise, and control (n=10 per group). In this study, three exercise interventions were implemented: moderate-to-intensity continuous training (MICT), full-body circuit resistance training, and concurrent training (a combination of the two previous types). Each program was performed three times per week for 12 weeks. Inflammatory responses, including interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), and immunoglobulin A (IgA), were measured in two stages: pretest and posttest. Data were analyzed using multivariate analysis of covariance and paired t test at a significance level of 0.05. Results Between-group results showed a significant difference between the aerobic, resistance, concurrent, and control groups in IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), hs-CRP, and IgA (P < 0.001). According to the post hoc test results and effect sizes, it was determined that aerobic training had the greatest effect on IL-6, and concurrent training had the greatest effect on TNF-α, hs-CRP, IL-10, IgA, and IL-8. Conclusion Twelve weeks of regular aerobic, resistance, and concurrent training improve inflammatory responses and reduce systemic inflammation in smokers with MetS. Concurrent training, combining aerobic and resistance training, is the most effective method for modulating inflammatory cytokines and improving the inflammatory status in this group.
Background and Aims Down syndrome (DS), the most common genetic cause, is associated with significant deficits in various cognitive domains, especially visuospatial memory, which severely affect the daily functioning and learning of children with DS. This study aimed to investigate the effects of cognitive and cognitive-motor training on visual-spatial memory in children with DS. Methods The participants included 24 children with DS, aged 10 to 12 years, who were randomly assigned to two groups: cognitive training and cognitive-motor training. Participants in both groups performed a simultaneous visual-spatial working memory task in the pretest. Then, the children underwent training for 21 sessions. The cognitive training group completed the Cogni Plus program during this period, and the cognitive-motor training group played different cognitive games. After completing the training sessions, a posttest evaluation was conducted. The data were analyzed using a 2 (groups)×2 (phase) mixed-design analysis of variance. Results The results revealed that there is a significant difference between groups (P<.05). Comparison of means showed that the mean response accuracy in cognitive group (98.75±5.39) was better than the cognitive-motor training group (62.25±5.27). Conclusion Cognitive and cognitive-motor training increased response accuracy in the groups, and cognitive training was more effective. Computer games provide a sense of control, which ultimately increases sustained attention and working memory.
Background and Aims This study aimed to investigate the effects of plyometric training and total-body resistance exercise (TRX) on the development of fundamental skills in young male soccer players. Methods This study employed a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design. The statistical sample included 45 young male soccer players aged 17-20 years, who were randomly assigned to three groups (n=15 per group): Plyometric training, TRX training, and a control group. Basic skills were measured as follows: agility using the Illinois Agility Test, strength using the one-repetition maximum test, and speed using the 30-meter sprint test. The experimental groups completed the plyometric and TRX training programs for 8 weeks, with three sessions per week. Data were analyzed using SPSS software, version 24. Levene’s test was used to examine homogeneity of variances, the Shapiro-Wilk test was used to assess normality, and multivariate analysis of covariance was employed for inter-group comparisons. Finally, the Bonferroni post-hoc test was utilized for pairwise comparisons between the groups. Results The Wilks’ Lambda test (P=0.001) indicated a significant difference in basic skills among the plyometric, TRX, and control groups. According to the Bonferroni post-hoc test results, the differences between the following groups were significant in the posttest phase: Agility: Both the plyometric training group (diffM=-0.72; P=0.007) and the TRX training group (diffM=-0.65; P=0.015) showed a significant difference compared to the control group. Muscular strength index: The plyometric training group (diffM=3.31; P=0.004) showed a significant difference compared to the control group. Leg explosive power index: The TRX training group (diffM=2.89; P=0.009) showed a significant difference compared to the control group. Running speed: Both the plyometric training group (diffM=-0.25; P=0.05) and the TRX training group (diffM=-0.21; P=0.016) showed a significant difference compared to the control group. Conclusion According to the research results, both training modalities significantly improved performance-related motor skills in young male soccer players; however, plyometrics offer a greater relative advantage in terms of sports-related functional characteristics.
Background and Aims This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation and cognitive-emotional rehabilitation on cognitive performance and memory function in patients with brain injury. Methods The statistical population of this study included all patients with brain injury and cognitive deficits who were referred to the Neurology Clinic of Shahid Motahary Hospital and the Psychological Clinic Razmehr in Shiraz City, Iran. Since the present study consisted of three groups (mild, moderate, and severe), 15 participants were included in each group (total n=45). Individuals were randomly assigned to one of these groups. After the pretest, two experimental groups were trained in 30-minute sessions, and then both groups were administered a posttest. The research instruments included the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the Wechsler Memory Scale for Adults. Results Analysis of covariance showed significant differences between the experimental and control groups in cognitive emotion regulation. The results of the analysis of covariance also showed no significant difference between the two groups of cognitive rehabilitation and cognitive-emotional rehabilitation interventions in terms of cognitive function and memory. Conclusion Cognitive-emotional rehabilitation appears to be an effective intervention for improving cognitive performance and memory in individuals with brain injury.
Background and Aims Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders in children, characterized by significant delays in the acquisition and performance of motor skills. Given that DCD is inherently related to learning processes, this systematic review aimed to examine the characteristics of motor learning in children with DCD. Methods Relevant studies were retrieved from major scientific databases, including PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, PsycINFO, Embase, Medline, ProQuest, and Web of Science, using the keywords motor learning, motor sequence, implicit learning, explicit learning, developmental coordination disorder (DCD), procedural learning, and procedural motor sequence learning. The search focused on articles published between 2000 and 2025. The reference lists of the initially identified studies were also reviewed to identify additional relevant sources. Titles, abstracts, and, when necessary, full texts of the articles were screened and evaluated. To assess the quality of the included studies, the Downs and Black checklist was used. Results The findings indicate that children with DCD, despite motor impairments, are capable of implicit motor learning; however, this process is slower and less efficient compared to their typically developing peers and requires more practice. Explicit motor learning is more challenging for them due to the additional cognitive load. In contrast, implicit learning, especially in the context of multisensory (verbal–visual) practice, is more effective for skill acquisition in children with DCD. Conclusion Our findings suggest that implicit motor learning provides a more effective pathway for acquiring skills through unconscious experience and repetition in children with DCD, and educational and rehabilitation interventions should be designed to focus on multisensory practice that leverages their implicit motor learning capacities to enhance learning efficiency.
Background and Aims Balance disorder is common among individuals with autism and can be considered one of the core features of this condition, as these individuals exhibit a range of postural instabilities. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the effects of cerebellar and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on static balance in children with moderate autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Methods This quasi-experimental study, conducted with a pretest-post-test design, involved 36 children aged 7-10 years with moderate autism in Sanandaj City, Iran. The participants were purposefully selected and assigned to four groups of nine participants each: real cerebellar stimulation, real DLPFC stimulation, sham cerebellar stimulation, and sham DLPFC stimulation. The study included pretest, intervention, and post-test phases. During the pretest, participants stood barefoot on a force plate for 30 s, repeated thrice, with a one-minute rest between trials, while keeping their arms at their sides and looking forward. The intervention was conducted over two weeks, consisting of 10 20-minute sessions. The post-test was administered 24 hours after the final session. Data were analyzed using paired t tests and univariate analysis of covariance. Results Cerebellar and dlPFC tDCS significantly affected the anterior-posterior and central-lateral displacement of the center of pressure in children with moderate ASD (P<0.05). The results indicated that the anterior-posterior and central-lateral displacements of the center of pressure in children with moderate ASD were significantly reduced by cerebellar and dlPFC tDCS. However, other results of the present study indicated that there was no significant difference between cerebellar and dlPFC tDCS on the anterior-posterior and central-lateral displacement of the center of pressure in children with moderate ASD (P>0.05). Conclusion Considering the results obtained regarding the effect of cerebellar and dlPFC tDCS on the static balance of children with moderate ASD, these exercises are recommended as a cost-effective, accessible, and effective program to improve the balance of children with moderate ASD.
Background and Aims Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) injection has emerged as a novel intervention in the management of chronic low back pain (CLBP), yet evidence regarding its biomechanical impact on gait symmetry remains limited. This study aimed to assess three-dimensional gait mechanics and symmetry following PRP injection and one-year post-discectomy in a male patient with CLBP. Methods A single-subject case study was conducted on a 38-year-old male (height: 182 cm, weight: 99 kg, BMI: 29.9 kg/m2) with a history of L5–S1 discectomy. Three-dimensional motion analysis (Motion Analysis Kestrel, Cortex software, version 8.0) and force plates (Kistler 9286 BA) were used to evaluate the lower limb kinematics and ground reaction forces (GRF) during gait, seven days after PRP injection. Spatiotemporal variables, joint range of motion (ROM) in all planes, and symmetry indices were examined. Results The greatest asymmetry was observed in the knee joint ROM in the frontal plane (swing: 69.78%, stance: 66.77%) and in the transverse plane of the knee (swing: 40.89%) and ankle (stance: 40.25%). Maximal symmetry was noted in the hip (transverse plane, swing: 4.31%). The GRF symmetry index indicated pronounced asymmetry in the mediolateral direction (SI: 112.09%), while vertical and anterior-posterior forces demonstrated acceptable symmetry. Conclusion Although PRP injection resulted in partial restoration of biomechanical symmetry in some lower limb variables, significant asymmetry persisted in the frontal and transverse planes, especially in the knee joint and mediolateral GRF direction. These findings highlight the complexity of functional recovery post-intervention and suggest the need for multimodal rehabilitation.
Background and Aims Ankle sprains of moderate to severe intensity can lead to chronic ankle instability and adversely affect landing kinematics. Both functional and mental fatigue are key factors contributing to these alterations. The present study aimed to compare the effects of functional and mental fatigue on single-leg landing kinematics in athletes with chronic ankle instability and healthy individuals. Methods In this quasi-experimental study, 48 male athletes aged 18–30 years (24 with chronic ankle instability and 24 healthy) were randomly assigned to four groups: Chronic ankle instability with functional fatigue, chronic ankle instability with mental fatigue, healthy with functional fatigue, and healthy with mental fatigue. The single-leg landing test was performed before and after the fatigue protocols, and kinematic angles (knee valgus, knee flexion, and hip flexion) were analyzed using Kinovea software, version 0, 9, 5 . Data were tested for normality using the Shapiro–Wilk test, followed by two-way mixed ANOVA (group×time) and Bonferroni post hoc analysis. Results using (P=0.0001). No significant change observed in the hip flexion angle (P=0.113). In the chronic ankle instability group with mental fatigue, the knee valgus angle also showed a significant increase (P=0.0001), whereas the knee flexion (P=0.061) and hip flexion (P=0.565) angles did not exhibit significant changes. Between-group comparisons indicated that the chronic ankle instability group with functional fatigue exhibited greater increases in knee valgus (P=0.0001) and greater decreases in knee flexion (P=0.0001) compared to the healthy groups. Furthermore, compared to the CAI group with mental fatigue, the changes in knee valgus (P=0.148) and knee flexion (P=0.061) were not statistically significant. Conclusion Both functional and mental fatigue affect knee and hip joint kinematics in individuals with chronic ankle instability, particularly by increasing knee valgus and decreasing knee flexion. Functional fatigue had a greater adverse effect, causing more considerable changes in joint alignment. These findings highlight the importance of considering the role of different types of fatigue in lower limb injury prevention strategies.
Background and Aims Auditory brainstem response (ABR) is an objective, electrophysiological test that has been used to assess auditory function for nearly 50 years. Rats are one of the most widely used rodent species for laboratory studies of the auditory system, which requires standardization for ABR recording in each laboratory. The aim of the present study was to estimate hearing thresholds using ABR and tonal stimuli at octave frequencies in healthy adult male Wistar rats. Methods In this experimental study, 8 adult male Wistar rats were subjected to ABR measurements using a threshold estimation approach under ketamine/xylazine anesthesia, in accordance with the principles of working with laboratory animals. Tone burst stimuli were presented at octave frequencies of 2000 to 16000 Hz through an appropriate loudspeaker, and the threshold of tonal stimuli was recorded in a descending manner by tracking wave II. Data were analyzed using SPSS software, version 17 and one-way analysis of variance. Results The mean thresholds obtained at tonal frequencies of 2, 4, 8 and 16 kHz were 21.25±4.43, 10.27±2.67, 6.87±2.58, and 2.31±3.75 dB SPL, respectively. A statistically significant relationship was observed between the threshold values and the frequency evaluated (P<0.001). Conclusion An inverse relationship between the frequency of the tonal stimulus and the estimated values of ABR thresholds was observed in rats, which can serve as a basis for the extent of threshold changes in pathological conditions leading to hearing damage in animal models.
Background and Aims Cochlear implantation is an effective intervention for auditory rehabilitation in individuals with severe to profound hearing loss. However, it may lead to balance and vestibular disorders or worsen existing symptoms. Physical, motor, and vestibular rehabilitation exercises, especially balance-focused interventions, are considered essential to improve motor function and quality of life. This systematic review aimed to assess scientific evidence regarding the effectiveness of such exercises among cochlear implant users. Methods This systematic review was conducted following PRISMA guidelines and the PICO framework. A comprehensive search was performed in international databases (MEDLINE/PubMed, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, ProQuest, SCOPUS, SPORTDiscus, Embase, and Taylor & Francis) and Persian databases (SID and Magiran) for studies published between January 2015 and August 2025, with no language restrictions. Eligible studies included randomized controlled trials, quasi-experimental studies, pre-test–post-test studies, case–control studies, and case reports involving cochlear implant recipients with outcomes related to balance, gait pattern, or motor performance. Study quality was assessed using the GRADE framework and standard evaluation tools. Results Out of 4,920 records, eleven studies met the inclusion criteria. Participants ranged from children to adults with severe-to-profound hearing loss from diverse cultural backgrounds. The most common interventions included static/dynamic balance training (20.9%), gait/mobility exercises (16.3%), and eye–hand/visual–motor training (14%), as well as multisensory–vestibular exercises, specialized skill training, and fine motor occupational therapy. Most studies reported significant improvements in balance, reduced vestibular symptoms, and enhanced quality of life. The main limitations were small sample sizes and short follow-up durations. Conclusion Current evidence supports the effectiveness of physical, motor, and vestibular rehabilitation programs in improving motor performance, balance, and quality of life in cochlear implant users. Future high-quality studies with larger samples and longer follow-up are recommended to provide more robust clinical guidelines.
Background and Aims Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that begins in early childhood. One of the core characteristics of ASD is a deficit in social skills, particularly in children with high-functioning autism (HFA). This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of sensory–motor and perceptual–motor exercises on social skills in children aged 8 to 12 years with high-functioning ASD. Methods This quasi-experimental study used a pre-test–post-test design with a control group. The statistical population included all children with ASD residing in a child care center in Tehran in 2024. Twenty-four children were selected through convenience sampling and non-randomly assigned to two experimental groups and one control group (8 participants per group). The sensory–motor group received intervention based on Cortes’s structured program across seven domains, implemented over 12 consecutive weeks (three 60-minute sessions per week). The perceptual–motor group received a structured program based on Johnston and Ramon’s intervention protocol over the same duration and frequency. The childhood autism rating scale (CARS) and Autism Social Skills Profile were used to collect data. Statistical analysis was performed using univariate and multivariate ANCOVA utilizing SPSS software, version 24. Results The findings indicated that both sensory–motor and perceptual–motor interventions significantly improved overall social skills (F=90.22, P<0.001). Specifically, significant improvements were observed in the sensory–motor (P=0.001) and perceptual–motor (P=0.001) groups compared to the control group. Conclusion Sensory–motor and perceptual–motor interventions are effective in enhancing social skills in children with high-functioning ASD.
Background and Aims Knee osteoarthritis is one of the most common joint disorders in elderly women, leading to pain, reduced mobility, and a lower quality of life (QoL). This study aimed to compare the effects of combined yoga–massage exercises and Tai Chi on pain, function, range of motion, and QoL in women with knee osteoarthritis. Methods The study population consisted of women aged 55–65 years. Based on inclusion criteria and with the supervision and diagnosis of an orthopedic specialist, 45 participants were purposefully selected. They were then randomly assigned to three groups: the combined yoga–massage group (n=15), the Tai Chi group (n=15), and the control group (n=15). Those in the control group did not participate in any training and continued their daily activities. After completing informed consent, pre-tests were conducted to assess pain and function using the Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) questionnaire, range of motion using a goniometer, and quality of life using the Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) questionnaire. The yoga–massage and Tai Chi protocols were performed for eight weeks, with three sessions per week. Data were analyzed using a mixed analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with a significance level of α≤0.05. Results The findings indicated that the combined yoga–massage protocol significantly improved pain, function, range of motion, and quality of life (P≤0.05) in women with knee osteoarthritis compared to the Tai Chi and control groups in the post-test. Conclusion Both yoga–massage and Tai Chi exercises reduced pain, enhanced function, increased range of motion, and improved quality of life in elderly women with knee osteoarthritis compared to the control group; however, yoga–massage exercises were more effective than Tai Chi in achieving these outcomes.
Background and Aims This study investigated how the built environment influences therapeutic outcomes for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), who often experience sensory processing difficulties, attention deficits, and learning challenges. Environmental distractions and sensory overload can hinder engagement and progress during therapy. To address this, the research proposes using eye-tracking technology as a non-invasive method to measure children’s visual attention and identify design elements, such as lighting, color, clutter, and spatial layout that contribute to distraction, anxiety, or disengagement. Methods This study employed a mixed-methods design in two phases. In Phase 1, children’s gaze behaviors (fixation duration, saccades, and gaze distribution) will be recorded during therapy to pinpoint distracting environmental features. In phase 2, these environments will be modified to minimize identified distractors, followed by reassessment to measure improvements in focus, engagement, and behavior. Complementary assessments—the short sensory profile 2 (SSP2), conners continuous performance test (CPT-3), and strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ)—will evaluate sensory and behavioral responses before and after environmental redesign. Results Expected outcomes include identifying key environmental factors that hinder attention, demonstrating the effectiveness of spatial modifications, and developing a framework for designing therapeutic spaces optimized for children with ADHD. Conclusion The findings aim to bridge clinical rehabilitation and environmental psychology, guiding evidence-based design principles for therapy centers, classrooms, and inclusive learning environments that better support children’s neurological and sensory needs.
Background and Aims Monitoring the kinematic components of the trunk, knee, hip, and ankle is an effective approach for predicting primary and secondary injuries to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). Accordingly, the aim of this study was to examine the chronic effects of fatigue caused by football training and matches on selected kinematic components of the knee and ankle in football players with and without a history of ACL surgery. Methods This study involved 20 football players with a history of ACL surgery and 20 players without any history of surgery, all selected purposefully from the Premier League of Tehran Province. The participants’ mean age, weight, and height were 22.93±3.74 years, 73.96±2.94 kg, and 1.76±0.03 m, respectively. The kinematic components evaluated included the maximum knee valgus angle, maximum knee flexion, and maximum ankle dorsiflexion angle during a double-leg jump-landing pattern. Data were collected during the second half of the league season, and player fatigue was assessed using the modified Borg rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale. Data were then analyzed using a two-way ANOVA. Results The findings revealed significant differences in the maximum knee valgus angle between healthy players and players with a history of ACL surgery, as well as in maximum knee flexion during deep landing among players with a history of surgery (P≤0.05). However, no significant differences were observed in other kinematic components (P≥0.05). Conclusion Overall, the results suggest that fatigue caused by football matches and training at the end of the season can lead to reduced maximum knee flexion in players with a history of ACL surgery and increased knee valgus in both groups. Additionally, the knee valgus angle during landing was generally higher in players with a history of ACL surgery compared to healthy players. Furthermore, the valgus angle in players with ACL surgery was consistently higher in both pre-test and post-test assessments than in healthy players.
Background and Aims Sensory integration is among the most vulnerable domains in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and its dysfunction can negatively impact their daily functioning and participation. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of perceptual-motor training in improving sensory integration in children aged 6 to 12 years with ASD. Methods This semi-experimental study utilized a pretest-posttest design with a control group. Forty children aged 6 to 12 years with a confirmed diagnosis of ASD were randomly assigned—after meeting inclusion and exclusion criteria and matched for age, severity of the disorder, and gender—to two groups: Experimental (n=20; 10 boys, 10 girls) and control (n=20; 10 boys, 10 girls). The experimental group received 11 structured sessions of perceptual-motor exercises (23 minutes per session, three sessions per week, over four weeks) based on a standardized protocol. The control group continued with only routine treatments. All ethical principles were strictly observed, including obtaining informed consent from parents and ensuring data confidentiality. Data were collected using the Sensory integration.Statistical analysis was performed using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) in SPSS software, version 26. Results The mean sensory integration score in the experimental group increased and the normality of data was assessed and confirmed. The study’s limitations included focusing on a specific age range and not assessing the long-term effects of the intervention. Conclusion The findings indicate that perceptual-motor exercises can lead to a significant improvement in sensory integration among children aged 6 to 12 years with ASD, as evidenced by higher post-test scores in the intervention group compared to the control group. Accordingly, these interventions may be recommended as an effective approach to enhancing sensory skills, daily functioning, and social participation in children with autism. However, given the focus on a limited age range and the lack of evaluation of other levels of severity or comorbid disorders, generalizing the results to the entire population of children with ASD requires further research. Furthermore, although the study’s randomized design and gender diversity strengthen the validity of the findings, follow-up studies examining the long-term and functional outcomes across different life domains are recommended.
Background and Aims Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common childhood disorder that significantly impacts cognitive, academic, and behavioral functioning of students. Improving executive function behaviors and motivation for achievement are key components for academic success and are important goals of educational and rehabilitation interventions. This study aimed to investigate the effect of cognitive-motor rehabilitation on executive function behaviors and motivation for achievement among elementary school students in Tehran. Methods This study is applied and quasi-experimental in nature, utilizing a pre-test-post-test design with control and experimental groups. The target population included all boys and girls from two schools in District 6 of Tehran during the academic year 2024-2025. Random sampling was conducted, and 30 students (15 girls and 15 boys) were selected from the two schools. Initially, the IVA-2 test was administered as an auxiliary tool for diagnosing ADHD. Following this, a pre-test was conducted with the students, and a cognitive-motor intervention was implemented for 8 weeks. After the intervention was completed, a post-test was conducted, followed by a follow-up phase. In all three stages, in addition to the IVA-2 test, the BRIEF Executive Function Questionnaire was provided to parents and the Motivation for Progress Questionnaire was provided to students. Data were analyzed using SPSS software, version 26 utilizing analysis of variance (ANOVA). Results The cognitive-motor intervention had a significant impact on improving executive function behaviors and motivation for achievement among students. Additionally, the main effects of the group (experimental and control) on academic motivation and executive functions were significant. Students in the experimental group showed notable improvements in executive functions, particularly in motivation for achievement, compared to the control group. Conclusion Cognitive-motor games were recognized as an effective tool for enhancing executive functions and motivation for achievement in students with ADHD.
