Plasmopara viticola, the causal agent of grapevine downy mildew, exhibits substantial intraspecific variation in pathogenicity and genetic diversity, yet the genomic features underlying this variation remain incompletely characterized. Here, we sequenced and assembled two P. viticola isolates, PvH (from Vitis vinifera) and PvS (from V. amurensis), using PacBio HiFi sequencing, and performed comparative genomic analysis. Two complete genome assemblies (17 chromosomes) of P. viticola (PvH: 115.3 Mb; PvS: 113.0 Mb) were generated and revealed that nearly 90% of the putative effectors exist as local duplicated gene clusters. Comparative genomics uncovered distinct intraspecific expansion, deletion, and diversification of putative effectors driven by local segmental, tandem, and proximal duplication events in P. viticola. Specifically, PvH exhibited a ~1.4-fold increase in CRNs (PvH: 237; PvS: 183; PV221: 169) and harbored 35 strain-specific CRNs. These differential effectors were predominantly clustered in complex structural variation hotspots (SVs, duplication and inversion). Notably, 104 putative effectors-including 21 RxLRs, 59 CRNs, and 24 CAZymes-were located within inversion regions. Together, our results highlight a highly dynamic genome architecture in P. viticola, in which SV and local gene duplication are closely associated with effector diversification. This study provides a genome-resolved comparative framework for understanding intraspecific genomic diversity in P. viticola and establishes a foundation for future population-level and functional investigations.

The soil-borne oomycete pathogen Phytophthora capsici poses a serious threat to plant growth and results in substantial economic impact on the pepper industry. Therefore, the isolation of multifunctional biocontrol agents has become a major research priority. In this study, we isolated a biocontrol strain, Bacillus subtilis Z-294, which demonstrated strong inhibition of P. capsici in both plate and greenhouse experiments. This strain Z-294 exhibited broad-spectrum antagonistic activities as well as plant growth-promoting ability. Phylogenetic analysis based on core-genome and average nucleotide identity (ANI) further identified Z-294 as B. subtilis. Importantly, we found that the strain Z-294 alleviates the P. capsici disease through mechanisms associated with changes in the plant microbiome. Plants treated with Z-294 showed higher alpha-diversity. The application of B. subtilis Z-294 showed that the relative abundance of Alphaproteobacteria, Bacilli, Bacteroidia, Agaricomycetes, and Eurotiomycetes increased, while the relative abundance of Gammaproteobacteria and Sordariomycetes declined. Strain Z-294 holds great promise as a multifunctional biocontrol agent for the sustainable management of diseases and the enhancement of plant health, laying a solid foundation for its future agricultural applications.

Potato common scab (PCS) is caused by various Streptomyces spp., which seriously affect the quality and economic value of potatoes. Different species of pathogens may affect disease control strategies due to their biological characteristics. To determine pathogen composition in the major potato production area, northern China, potato tubers with various types of PCS symptoms were collected from 18 counties. From 57 collected samples, 159 bacterial isolates of Streptomyces spp. were obtained on oatmeal agar. Pathogenicity of these isolates was examined on tuber disks and potted plants of potato, resulting in 42 isolates being confirmed as pathogenic and causing typical scabby symptoms. To confirm pathogenicity determinants, the txtAB, tomA, and nec1 genes of these pathogens were detected using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Pathogenic isolates were also identified by the combination of morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics, BOX-PCR, 16S rDNA, and multilocus sequence analysis. Among the 42 pathogenic Streptomyces isolates, 36 (85.7% of total isolates) were identified as Streptomyces galilaeus, and 6 (14.3%) as Streptomyces scabies. The genome of S. galilaeus isolates from the predominant group was resequenced, yielding six distinct genetic clusters. The Shangdu population exhibited the most complex genetic structure. The dominance and genetic diversity of S. galilaeus revealed in this study provide a critical foundation for breeding resistant potato varieties and developing targeted control measures tailored to the agroecological conditions of northern China.IMPORTANCEPotato common scab (PCS) caused by pathogenic Streptomyces seriously affects the quality and economic value of potato, especially in northern China. The species of Streptomyces were closely related to their geographical distribution. We determined that Streptomyces galilaeus is dominant in this area, rather than Streptomyces scabies, which is widely distributed. This finding emphasizes the importance of developing effective prevention and control strategies for the region. In addition, genome resequencing of S. galilaeus revealed significant genetic diversity, with the Shangdu population displaying the most complex structure. These results provide important information for further understanding the population structure and distribution of PCS pathogens.

Phytohormones act as key endogenous factors and signalling molecules that mediate abiotic stress responses in plants, and are the integration centres of plant responses to environmental stimuli, playing an important role in plant resistance to drought, salt, cold and other stresses. Stress responses are finely regulated through a complex network of different classes of phytohormone signalling pathways. Many transcription factors are able to regulate the content of endogenous plant hormones by influencing hormone synthesis, metabolic gene and stress-related genes expression, which in turn affects plant growth and development and improves plant tolerance to abiotic stresses. Signaling molecules in plant stress responses, such as abscisic acid (ABA) ethylene (ETH), gibberellin (GA), jasmonic acid (JA) and salicylic acid (SA). Their roles in orchestrating plant responses to abiotic stresses. With global climate change, abiotic disasters have become increasingly frequent in recent years, severely hindering crop growth and development. Nanomaterials have attracted widespread attention from researchers because they can significantly alleviate abiotic stress in crops caused by factors such as salinity, drought, flooding, and heavy metals. This paper reviews recent research progress on the use of plant hormones and nanomaterials to alleviate abiotic stress in plants and elaborates on their underlying mechanisms of action. In the future, we will focus on investigating the roles of plant hormones and nanomaterials in modulating plant responses to abiotic stress, thereby enhancing plant tolerance to such stresses and increasing crop yields to address food security challenges.

To improve the environmental robustness and practical applicability of nitrification inhibitors under heterogeneous soil conditions, a pH-responsive hybrid delivery system (DMPP@ATP-PDA-MPNs) was engineered by integrating 3,4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP) with aminated attapulgite (ATP), polydopamine (PDA), and metal-phenolic networks (MPNs). Structural characterization confirmed the formation of a mineral-organic hybrid interface that enabled stable immobilization of DMPP through combined mineral confinement and reversible coordination interactions. The hybrid system exhibited a pH-responsive delayed release behavior, contributing to enhanced retention of DMPP under conditions prone to leaching and rapid diffusion. Molecular docking analysis indicated that DMPP associated with the composite maintained favorable binding orientations toward ammonia monooxygenase, suggesting preservation of its coordination-dependent inhibitory functionality. In soil incubation experiments, the composite formulation significantly suppressed nitrification and reduced cumulative N2O emissions by up to 87.1 +/- 3.34% (n = 3) relative to the untreated control. Reduced DMPP leaching losses were consistently observed in both fluvo-aquic and paddy soils, particularly under acidic conditions, highlighting the carrier's capacity to mitigate premature inhibitor loss in realistic soil environments. Short-term biosafety evaluation showed no acute phytotoxic effects on wheat seed germination under the tested conditions. Overall, this work presents a scalable mineral-organic delivery strategy that enhances the environmental retention and functional stability of DMPP without compromising its coordination-dependent activity, offering an engineering-oriented solution for improving the field reliability of enhanced-efficiency nitrogen fertilizers.

Light is a major environmental factor regulating plant growth and development. Photosynthesis in plants provides the materials and energy necessary for their long-term survival. Autophagy plays a crucial role in the degradation of substances in eukaryotic cells and is essential for plant growth, development, and stress regulation. However, the molecular link between the light response and autophagy pathways in plants remains poorly understood. Here, we found that autophagy-related cysteine protease ATG4 (MdATG4a) responds to low-light stress and positively regulates the light utilization efficiency of apple plants. Overexpression of MdATG4a in apple plants enhanced tolerance to low-light stress, while silencing MdATG4a resulted in the opposite phenotype. Chlorophyll content, photosynthetic parameters and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters were greater under low-light conditions in transgenic apple plants overexpressing MdATG4a than in wild-type plants, which contributed to their enhanced light utilization efficiency. Moreover, MdATG4a enhanced autophagy activity in apple plants under low-light treatment. The BPC transcription factor (TF) basic pentacysteine 2 (MdBPC2) bound to the promoter of MdATG4a and inhibited its expression. Under low-light stress, MdBPC2 further weakened the expression of MdATG4a and negatively modulated the response of apple plants to low-light stress. The light-signaling TF phytochrome-interacting factor 3 (MdPIF3) interacted with MdBPC2, which further inhibited the expression of MdATG4a under low light. Our results clarify the transcriptional regulation of MdATG4a in response to low-light stress in apple (Malus domestica) plants.

Accurate interpretation of fluorescence attenuation from carbon dots in soil systems remains challenging because optical signals are highly sensitive to matrix-induced quenching, surface-state perturbation, and background interference. Here, we developed a bispectral matrix-decoupling framework integrating fluorescence (FL), near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy with operational partitioning, orthogonal organic carbon validation, and mechanistic quencher-addition tests to systematically evaluate sulfur-nitrogen co-doped carbon dots (S-N-CDs) in complex soil leachates. FL decreased rapidly, following apparent first-order attenuation with a rate constant of 0.127 day⁻¹ and a half-life of 5.48 days, whereas the monitored NIR windows at 1100-1200 nm and 1400-1450 nm displayed slower near-linear attenuation. Quantitative partitioning revealed that the leachate-associated mobile fraction decreased from 34.2% to 12.6%, mirror-imaged by an increasing unrecovered fraction. Quencher-addition tests confirmed that dynamic matrix components and co-existing metal ions directly drove severe fluorescence quenching. Crucially, NIR controls indicated that complementary spectral response windows provide robust empiric calibration rather than isolated structural tracking. These findings demonstrate that apparent optical signal loss must not be directly equated with complete material degradation. Ultimately, this transferable framework establishes a vital methodological cornerstone for distinguishing reversible optical attenuation from structural persistence, providing robust signal processing for active biophotonic sensing within complex, unstructured ecosystems.

Biocontrol microbes are environment friendly and safe for humans and animals. To seek biocontrol microbes effective in suppressing Fusarium oxysporum is important for tomato production. F. oxysporum is a soil-borne pathogen capable of causing wilt in numerous plant species. Therefore, we found a biocontrol bacterium with an excellent control effect from the rhizosphere soil of plant roots. In this work, we focus on two parts of work. The first part is the identification and genomic analysis of the biocontrol bacterium Y-4; the second part is the control efficiency of strain Y-4 on F. oxysporum. For this study, we identified strain Y-4 as Bacillus velezensis. It is an aerobic Gram-positive bacterium that can secrete a variety of extracellular enzymes and siderophores. Strain Y-4 also contains a large number of disease-resistant genes and a gene cluster that forms antibacterial substances. In addition, we found that it significantly inhibited the reproduction of F. oxysporum in a culture dish. In the indoor control effect test, after treatment with strain Y-4 suspension, the disease index of tomato plants decreased significantly. Furthermore, the control efficiency of the plants was 71.88%. At the same time, Y-4 bacterial suspension induced an increase in POD and SOD enzyme activities in tomato leaves, resulting in increased plant resistance. Taken together, strain Y-4 proves to be an effective means of controlling F. oxysporum in tomatoes.

Soil acidification seriously affects the structure and functions of terrestrial ecosystems, but the impact of soil acidification on the stoichiometry of soil C : N : P remains inconclusive. Therefore, a greenhouse experiment was conducted to investigate the response of soil C, N and P stoichiometry to soil acidification in a simulated agricultural planting system, with five soils (including acid sulfate soil, red soil, lateritic red soil, latosol and limestone soil) that had different initial properties being used. Four soil acidification levels were created by adding acid solutions with pH of 5.0, 4.0, 3.0 or 2.0, along with a control with the pH of 7.0. The results showed that the experimental treatments resulted in significant soil acidification (p < 0.05), with the pH 2.0 treatment inducing a decline in soil pH ranging from 12.43% to 32.22% in the five soils. However, soil acidification did not significantly change soil organic C content, except in the cases of the strong acidification treatment in lateritic red soil and limestone soil, whereas it significantly or marginally significantly increased soil total N content in the five soils. Across the five soils or in each soil, the acidification treatments consistently and significantly linearly reduced soil total P content, with the pH 2.0 treatment resulting in soil total P reduction by 32.90%, 21.78%, 27.82%, 25.93% and 30.67% in acid sulfate soil, red soil, lateritic red soil, latosol and limestone soil, respectively. Correspondingly, soil available P content significantly increased under acidification treatments. Such asymmetrical responses of soil C, N and P contents resulted in significant alterations in soil C : N : P stoichiometry under acidification scenarios, with soil C : P and N : P ratios increased significantly. These results suggest that soil acidification may increase soil C : P and N : P ratios mainly by decreasing soil total P content, due to the activation of soil P as available P components.

The use of urease inhibitors, such as N-(n‑butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT), has been seen as an effective strategy to mitigate nitrogen loss from agricultural soils. However, while previous studies have assessed microbial impacts under field conditions with repeated NBPT applications, the legacy effects of NBPT degradation on microbial interactions and functions remain underexplored. This study investigated post-degradation impacts of NBPT on soil nitrogen transformation, ammonia (NH3) volatilization, and the diversity, interaction, and function of microbial communities. Soil samples from five diverse Chinese locations were incubated with different NBPT concentrations (0.04 %, 0.09 %, 0.15 %, 0.20 %) for 42 days to evaluate sustained effects after NBPT dissipation. Results showed that NBPT significantly slowed urea hydrolysis and reduced excessive ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N) accumulation. Specifically, cumulative NH3 emissions decreased by 4.54 %-49.36 % across the tested soils. Moreover, NBPT strengthened interactions among soil fungi without significantly altering the α-diversity of bacterial and fungal communities. Notably, the relative abundance of Aureobasidium (a fungal genus including potential plant pathogens) in NBPT-amended soils (all concentrations pooled) decreased by 98.28 % compared to urea-only controls. These findings highlight NBPT's role in fostering resilient microbial communities and suppressing pathogens, underscoring its legacy benefits for soil health despite transient microbial dynamics during incubation. Thus, NBPT application not only effectively reduces NH3 volatilization and regulates nitrogen transformation but also positively impacts soil microbial interactions and functions, promoting improved soil health and ecosystem resilience.

Foliar spraying zinc (Zn) and selenium (Se) serves as a dual-purpose strategy for improving wheat nutrition and affecting cadmium (Cd) accumulation. A pot experiment was conducted to explore the effects of foliar Zn, Se, and their combination (ZnSe), applied at the early jointing or booting stage, on Cd accumulation and redistribution in wheat, with a particular focus on Zn-Se interactions. When applied individually, both spraying Zn or Se reduced wheat grain Cd content by 21.5

Transcript elongation controlled by RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) represents a key regulatory event in numerous cellular processes. However, the precise mechanisms underlying the regulation of RNAP II distribution and progression in plants remain largely elusive. Here, we positionally cloned the causal mutation in the defective kernel 59 (dek59) maize (Zea mays) mutant and demonstrated that Dek59 encodes Structure-Specific Recognition-Protein 1 (ZmSSRP1), a subunit of the Facilitates Chromatin Transcription (FACT) complex that regulates RNAP II. Using genome-wide mapping assays, we determined that ZmSSRP1 binding sites co-localize with those of RNAP II phosphorylated at its serine 2 residue (Ser2P) and are highly enriched within actively transcribed genes. Mutation of ZmSSRP1 resulted in Ser2P accumulation around the +1 nucleosome of genes, affecting gene expression in a gene length-dependent manner. The reduced amount of RNAP II in the dek59 mutant was rescued to wild-type-like levels by inhibiting the proteasome, indicating that arrested RNAP II degradation is proteasome-dependent. These findings reveal the indispensable role of ZmSSRP1 in regulating RNAP II-mediated transcription, which is critical for the proper expression of thousands of genes during maize seed development.

Litchi downy blight (LDB) caused by Peronophythora litchii and anthracnose (AD) caused by Colletotrichum species are major pre- and postharvest disease of litchi fruit. Biocontrol agents such as Burkholderia has been applied for controlling postharvest fruit decay. In this work, an endophytic strain SZPT16 isolated from health litchi branch was identified as Burkholderia gladioli and exhibited strong antagonistic activity against mycelial growth and conidia/sporangia germination of two postharvest pathogens. Dual incubation of pathogen and biocontrol agents caused alterations in hyphal and conidial/sporangial structures and severe cell morphology changes such as mycelia deformation, cell wall collapse and cellular disorganization. Cell-free culture filtrates (CF, diluted at 25-fold) of B. gladioli SZPT16 showed an efficient inhibition on postharvest litchi decay by preharvest application (74.77 % protection) and postharvest application (64.68 % and 71.14 % protection for LDB and AD, respectively). Furthermore, UPLC-MS/MS metabolomic analysis identified 41 up-regulated differential metabolites, which mainly included nucleosides, nucleotides, and analogues, organic acids and derivatives, organic oxygen compounds, and organoheterocyclic compounds. This study firstly reported the efficacy of CF of B. gladioli SZPT16 in protecting postharvest litchi fruit against natural and inoculated pathogen infections. The overall results provide a promising alternative to chemical fungicides to control litchi postharvest decay.

Atmospheric deposition is considered a source of heavy metals in plants. However, research on the uptake pathways of atmospheric particulate matter by leaves and the subsequent translocation of heavy metals within plants remains limited. In this study, the foliar uptake and translocation of heavy metals in two maize cultivars (fresh corn and silage corn cultivars, called Baiyunuo909 and Qingzhu932, respectively) were investigated through foliar exposure using soil from a mining area to simulate dry deposition under controlled chamber conditions. The height and biomass of maize were inhibited after three and five exposures to fallout deposition, and this inhibitory effect became increasingly pronounced with prolonged exposure. Furthermore, the activities of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), along with the malondialdehyde (MDA) content, significantly decreased in both cultivars relative to the control. This decrease was more significant in fresh maize, with the reduction ranges being 94.3%, 42.1%, and 40.8%, respectively. Fallout exposure elevated the contents of cadmium, lead, arsenic and zinc in the leaves, stems, and sheaths of both cultivars, despite no significant increase in the roots. The bioconcentration factors of leaves for heavy metals ranged from 0.0002 to 0.0007, representing a 3.5–fold variation; however, the overall low values showed no significant differences. Scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy revealed the accumulation of particulate matter on the leaf surface, with a higher density around the cuticle and stomata. Additionally, the fresh corn cultivar demonstrated greater sensitivity to fallout than the silage corn cultivar. In summary, heavy metals present in atmospheric particulate matter can be absorbed by leaves and subsequently translocated to other plant tissues. This study provides a theoretical foundation for understanding the mechanisms of foliar heavy metal uptake in maize.

Laser weeding is an innovative, environmentally friendly method for intra-row weed control. However, its effectiveness depends on accurate weed identification and an efficient control system. This study developed an intra-row laser weeding system for lettuce, combining deep learning and laser technology. The system consisted of three modules: perception, decision, and execution. It used an MV-UB130GM industrial camera to capture images, which are transmitted to a computer for processing. A target detection algorithm located weeds by calculating the central coordinates of anchor frames. The multi-task learning (MTL) decision system then planned the weeding path, generated instructions, and controlled the laser for weeding tasks. The YOLOv8 model, enhanced with an attention mechanism, formed the foundation of target detection. To compress the model, a class knowledge distillation method based on transfer learning was applied, resulting in a lightweight YOLOv8s-CBAM model with a mAP@0.5 of 98.9% and a size of just 6.2 MB. A simulation prototype of the laser weeding system was built, and initial experiments demonstrated that a 450 nm blue semiconductor laser effectively kills weeds in 1 s with 30 W output. Experimental results showed that the system detected and eliminated 100% of weeds in low-density scenes and achieved an 88.9% detection rate in high-density areas. The real-time detection speed reached 21.27 FPS, and the overall weeding success rate was 76.9%. This study provides valuable insights for the development of intra-row weed control systems based on laser technology, contributing to the advancement of precision agriculture.

Bacterial blight (BB) of rice caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), is an important disease in rice-growing countries, including Pakistan, where it was first reported in the mid-1970s. Transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs) play vital roles in many plant diseases caused by Xanthomonas spp.; however, Pakistani Xoo TALome diversity and their contribution to pathogenicity is largely unknown. In this study, 101 Xoo strains were screened using specific PCR primers. The genomic DNA from these strains underwent BamHI digestion and hybridized with the internal SphI fragment of PthXo1. Southern blot analysis revealed 16 to 20 putative tale fragments among the tested strains. These strains were further classified into 11 genotypes based on the number and size of the hybridizing bands. Genotypes 1, 2, 3, and 4 represented 24, 2, 51, and 17 strains, respectively. Pathogenicity assays on near-isogenic lines (NILs) containing different resistance (R) genes exhibited that CBB23 was incompatible with all tested Pakistani-Xoo genotypes, whereas IRBB5 and IRBB4 showed resistance against specific genotypes. In contrast, paddy trails on NILs containing single, double, and triple mutants of OsSWEET11a, OsSWEET13, and OsSWEET14 in the effector binding elements (EBEs) of cv. Kitaake revealed that KP-22 and LD-5 harbor novel virulent TAL effector/s. Interestingly, the expression analysis of six clade-III OsSWEET genes suggests that novel TALE/s targeting unidentified susceptibility gene/s. Altogether, this study highlights gene-for-gene relationships between tested rice lines and Pakistani-Xoo strains. This is the first report providing the diversity of TALEs and their relationship to R and S (susceptibility) genes. Further identification of novel virulent TALE/s and their cognate target/s is warranted to precisely elucidate their role in BB.

Bacterial blight of cotton (BBC) caused by Xanthomonas citri pv. malvacearum (Xcm) is an important and destructive disease affecting cotton plants. Transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs) released by the pathogen regulate cotton resistance to the susceptibility. In this study, we sequenced the whole genome of Xcm Xss-V2-18 and identified eight tal genes: seven on the plasmids and one on the chromosome. Deletion and complementation experiments of Xss-V2-18 tal genes demonstrated that Tal1b is required for full virulence on cotton. Transcriptome profiling coupled with TALE-binding element prediction revealed that Tal1b targets GhSWEET14A04/D04 and GhSWEET14D02 simultaneously. Expression analysis confirmed the independent inducibility of GhSWEET14A04/D04 and GhSWEET14D02 by Tal1b, whereas GhSWEET14A04/D04 is additionally targeted by Tal1. Moreover, β-glucuronidase and Xa10-mediated hypersensitive response assays indicated that the effector-binding element (EBEs) are required for the direct and specific activation of the candidate targets by Tal1 and Ta1b. These insights enhance our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of bacterial blight in cotton and might lead to improved resistance through EBEs disruption or a TALE-trap strategy.

Zinc (Zn) and organic fertilizer (OF) play a dual role in both promoting plant growth and modulating cadmium (Cd) uptake. However, the individual and combined effects of soil-applied Zn and OF on Cd accumulation in wheat remain insufficiently understood, with reported outcomes varying from inhibition to promotion of Cd uptake. Therefore, this study systematically investigated the effect of Zn, organic fertilizer, and their combined treatment on the uptake dynamics of Cd and Zn in wheat plants across different growth stages. The pot culture experiments demonstrated that applying 20 mg/kg ZnSO4 alone significantly reduced grain Cd content by 22.3% at the mature stage. Increasing the Zn dose to 40 mg/kg further enhanced the reduction, lowering Cd accumulation by 38.9% and decreasing Cd levels from 0.23 to 0.14 mg/kg. The application of 1% OF in alkaline soil enhanced soil Cd availability but did not significantly affect Cd accumulation in various wheat organs. The combination of Zn and organic fertilizer resulted in a relatively modest grain Cd reduction of 8.4–23.0%. Generally, Zn application alone was more effective in reducing Cd accumulation in wheat, while organic fertilizer may require careful use due to its Cd-mobilizing effect in alkaline soil. The combination of Zn and organic fertilizer showed limited benefits for Cd mitigation.

The flowering of plants is a complex biological process that signifies the transition from vegetative growth to reproductive growth. Choosing the optimal timing for flowering is crucial for plant reproduction and yield. The timing of flowering in plants is influenced not only by their developmental status but also by external abiotic stress factors. This paper summarizes the effects of abiotic stress factors such as light, temperature, moisture, and nitrogen on flowering time, reviews the genes involved in the regulation of flowering time by environmental factors, and outlines the corresponding genetic regulatory pathways. By analyzing these abiotic stress factors and related genes, this study reveals the multilayered regulatory network through which plants alter their flowering time, aiming to provide insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the adaptability of flowering time.