Dryland vegetation underpins ecosystem services and livelihoods. Understanding the influencing factors of its dynamics is critical for effective restoration and degradation risk reduction. Most assessments still rely on unvalidated vegetation indices, assume monotonic trends over a single period, and use coarse attribution approaches that blur the respective roles of climate, soil–water conditions, and land use. This paper verifies NDVI (Normalized Vegetation Index) and kNDVI (Kernel Normalized Vegetation Index) using unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) observation data. The temporal and spatial changes of vegetation in Inner Mongolia from 2000 to 2024 and the driving mechanisms of climate-soil-groundwater and land use were analyzed by using the sequence Mann-Kendall mutation test, the trend analysis of Theil-Sen (Theil-Sen) + MK (Mann-Kendall), and the Hurst index, pixel-wise correlations and a Geodetector model. Main findings: (1) compared with NDVI, kNDVI better identifies low-cover/poor-growth areas; (2) vegetation shows a fluctuating upward trend (slope ≈ 0.0034 yr⁻1) with a mean kNDVI of 0.255, and a northeast-to-southwest decline in greenness with peaks in Hulunbuir; (3) vegetation conditions improved over 77.29% of the region (mainly in the northeast) and degraded over 22.71% (chiefly central–eastern); Theil–Sen slope estimator combined with the Hurst exponent indicates kNDVI is likely to increase over most areas, with ~ 10.65% showing a declining tendency; (4) groundwater depth and precipitation are the principal natural drivers of interannual fluctuations, with groundwater showing the strongest association (up to r = 0.95, p < 0.01). In contrast, spatial heterogeneity is mainly shaped by soil nutrients, land use, and topography, among which total nitrogen provides the highest explanatory power (q = 0.41). Overall, the results underscore the central role of groundwater and soil conditions, calling for restoration strategies that integrate water management and land-use planning.

To elucidate the effects of different plantation types on understory vegetation and soil properties in the Mu Us Sandy Land, this study investigated five plantation types: Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica Litv. pure forest, P. sylvestris var. mongolica-Salix psammophila C. Wang and Ch. Y. Yang mixed forest, Salix matsudana Koidz. pure forest, Amorpha fruticosa L. pure forest, and A. fruticosa-S. psammophila mixed forest, using bare sandy land as a control. Through quadrat survey and stratified soil sampling, we assessed the understory plant diversity, soil characteristics, and their interrelationships. The results showed the following: (1) A total of 11 understory plant species, belonging to 11 genera and five families, were recorded, predominantly shrubs from Asteraceae and Fabaceae, and perennial herbs. The S. matsudana pure forest exhibited the highest understory plant diversity, with Shannon and Margalef indices (1.72 and 1.87, respectively) significantly higher than other stands. (2) Soil nutrients varied significantly with forest type. The mixed forest of A. fruticosa and S. psammophila notably improved the contents of soil total nitrogen and organic matter, whereas the soil total phosphorus content was generally low in all stands. (3) Spearman correlation analysis revealed the differential responses of diversity indices to soil factors: the Simpson dominance index was significantly negatively correlated with 10 similar to 20 cm soil water content (SWC) (r = -0.9, p < 0.05), and significantly positively correlated with 20 similar to 40 cm total phosphorus (TP) (r = 0.9, p < 0.05), with no significant correlations with other soil factors (TN, TK, OM, pH); the Shannon diversity index was highly significantly negatively correlated with 0 similar to 10 cm SWC (r = -0.97, p < 0.01), and no significant correlations with other soil factors (TN, TK, TP, OM, pH); the Pielou evenness index was significantly positively correlated with 0 similar to 10 cm pH (r = 0.9, p < 0.05) and positively correlated with 20 similar to 40 cm pH (r = 0.8) (not statistically significant); by contrast, the Margalef richness index showed no significant correlations with all measured soil physicochemical factors. This study demonstrates that S. matsudana pure forest is more conducive to the development of understory plant diversity, and that soil factors exert a stronger regulatory effect on community structure (evenness and dominance) than on species richness in this arid sandy ecosystem.

IntroductionThe Mu Us Sandy Land has severe soil erosion and a fragile ecological environment. The construction of sand fixation forests has markedly increased vegetation coverage. However, water resource scarcity constrains the sustainable development of the ecosystem. Hence, an urgent challenge is to maintain construction of sand fixation forests while mitigating the high soil-water consumption.MethodsThe research selected sand fixation forests of the same recovery years, natural grassland and unrestored bare land for fixed-interval monitoring of soil moisture, together with measurements of vegetation features, soil physical properties, and water-holding and infiltration experiments for each hydrological layer.ResultsMajor findings: (1) Pinus sylvestris (PS) sand fixation forests had the greatest integrated water-holding capacity, 1.25 times that of bare land. (2) The effective soil-moisture supply depths were 40 cm, 150 cm, 150 cm and 100 cm for Gressland (GL), Salix cheilophila (SC) , PS and Bare land (BL). After the moisture supply, PS showed a large water consumption. From the standpoint of conserving soil moisture, GL was the optimal vegetation type, followed by SC. (3) WHC had a direct, significant negative effect on soil water content (SWC) (p < 0.05); WHC also negatively influenced the initial infiltration rate (IIR); and IIR directly influenced SWC. Results further show that canopy and litter layers of sand fixation forests can replenish soil moisture by altering WHC and IIR, but the high water consumption of trees still keeps SWC at low levels.DiscussionTherefore, based on comprehensive consideration of sand fixation needs and water conservation, Salix cheilophila (SC) performs better in water holding and infiltration promotion, and is more suitable for construction of sand fixation forests in this region. In water-lack areas, shrub-grass mixed forests should be considered for construction of sand fixation forests in the future.

Soil erosion in the hilly and gully region of the middle reaches of the Yellow River is severe, threatening regional ecological security and the water-sediment balance of the Yellow River. The area features fragmented topography and significant spatial heterogeneity in soil thickness, forming a unique binary "soil-rock" structural system. The soil in the study area is characterized by silt-based loess, and the underlying bedrock is an interbedded Jurassic-Cretaceous sandstone and sandy shale. It has strong weathering, well-developed fissures, and good permeability, rather than dense impermeable rock layers. However, the spatiotemporal differentiation mechanism of soil moisture in this system remains unclear. This study focuses on the typical hilly and gully region-the Geqiugou watershed. Through field investigations, soil thickness sampling, multi-scale soil moisture monitoring, and analysis of meteorological data, it systematically examines the cascade relationships among microtopography, soil-rock combinations, soil moisture, and meteorological drivers. The results show that: (1) Based on the field survey of 323 sampling points in the study area, it was found that soil samples with a thickness of less than 50 cm accounted for 85%, which constituted the main structure of soil thickness in the region. Macrotopographic units control the spatial differentiation of soil thickness, forming a complete thickness gradient from erosional units (e.g., Gully and Furrow) to depositional units (e.g., Gently sloped terrace). Based on this, five typical soil-rock combination types with soil thicknesses of 10 cm, 30 cm, 50 cm, 70 cm, and 90 cm were identified. (2) Soil-rock combination structures regulate the vertical distribution and seasonal dynamics of soil moisture. In thin-layer combinations, soil moisture is primarily retained within the shallow soil profile with higher dynamics, whereas in thick-layer combinations, under conditions of substantial rainfall, moisture can percolate deeply and become notably stored within the fractured bedrock, sometimes exceeding the moisture content in the overlying soil. (3) The response of soil moisture to precipitation is hierarchical: light rain events only affect the surface layer, whereas heavy rainfall can infiltrate to depths below 70 cm. Under intense rainfall, the soil-rock interface acts as a rapid infiltration pathway. (4) The influence of meteorological drivers on soil moisture exhibits vertical differentiation and is significantly modulated by soil-rock combination types. This study reveals the critical role of microtopography-controlled soil-rock combination structures in the spatiotemporal differentiation of soil moisture, providing a scientific basis for the precise implementation of soil and water conservation measures and ecological restoration in the region.

In arid regions with extremely limited water resources, understanding water-use strategies of dominant shrubs is critical for ecohydrology and vegetation restoration. This study investigated the water sources of Nitraria tangutorum and Zygophyllum xanthoxylum in the eastern Tengger Desert, using soil water monitoring and hydrogen-oxygen stable isotopes(δ²H, δ¹8O). Levins’ index and the Proportional Similarity (PS) index were used to quantify niche breadth and similarity in water-source use. Soil water content in N. tangutorum sites was generally higher than that in Z. xanthoxylum sites, particularly in the deep layers. The slopes of the local meteoric water line and soil water line were lower than the global meteoric water line, indicating evaporative enrichment in precipitation and soil water. N. tangutorum xylem water aligned more closely with shallow to middle layer soil water, whereas Z. xanthoxylum corresponded more closely to middle to deep soil water, demonstrating vertical differentiation in water uptake. MixSIAR results revealed that N. tangutorum primarily utilized water from the 40–200 cm soil layer in the early growing season, shifted to shallow soil water (0–40 cm) during the peak precipitation period, and subsequently shifted back to middle and deep water sources. In contrast, Z. xanthoxylum consistently relied on water from the 120–200 cm soil layer throughout the growing season, with a minor groundwater contribution. Both shrubs exhibited relatively broad ecohydrological niche breadths across the growing season. However, during the peak precipitation period in July and August, their niche breadths contracted, and the similarity index of soil water and groundwater utilization decreased. Overall, the two shrubs exhibited contrasting water-source use patterns: N. tangutorum showed greater seasonal flexibility, shifting toward shallow soil water during July–August, whereas Z. xanthoxylum maintained a relatively stable reliance on deeper soil water. Because sampling was conducted in species-specific stands rather than mixed-species plots, niche metrics are interpreted as comparative indicators of water-source use patterns under shared regional conditions. These findings provide a basis for species selection and water management for desertification control and vegetation restoration.

The southern foothills of the Greater Khingan Mountains in Inner Mongolia are one of the 14 contiguous destitute areas in China. The ecological environment in the region is harsh. The implementation of the Grain-for-Green Project is crucial to the restoration and protection of local forest ecosystems. However, the project has some deficiencies in terms of plant communities and soil stoichiometric characteristics. In this study, the southern slope of Daxing'anling Forest in Inner Mongolia was used as the research area, and 1 year, 3 years, 5 years, 10 years, 20 years, abandoned land, and farmland after the restoration were comprehensively selected. The purpose of this study was to analyze the dynamic changes in soil stoichiometric characteristics and plant diversity during ecological restoration of this area, explore the influence of soil stoichiometric characteristics on plant diversity. The following results were obtained: (1) In terms of plant communities, plant species increased first and then decreased after returning farmland. In the early stage, pioneer herbs increased, and some species were eliminated due to competition and other factors in the later stage. Shrubs and trees appeared late, and herbs had strong adaptability. (2) In terms of soil stoichiometry, the contents of soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) were low in the early stage of returning farmland. With the increase in years, SOC increased first and then decreased, and TN increased. The changes in each soil layer were affected by many factors and differed from those of the control. The total phosphorus (TP) content fluctuated, and the ratios of C/N, C/P, and N/P had different trends in varying soil layers with returning farmland and vegetation restoration. (3) In terms of the relationship between vegetation and soil nutrients, SOC was positively correlated with TN, TN was positively correlated with the evenness index, and TP was negatively correlated with some vegetation indexes. This work has important guiding significance for improving soil fertility and plant growth in returning farmland to forest. This work is helpful to realize ecological environment protection and sustainable agricultural development.

Water–sediment evolution and attribution analysis in watersheds is one of the research focuses of hydrogeology. An in-depth investigation into the spatiotemporal variation of water and sediment at multiple spatial scales within the basin, along with a systematic assessment of the respective impacts of climate change and human activities, provides a scientific foundation for formulating effective soil and water conservation practices and integrated water resource management strategies. This research holds significant implications for the sustainable development and ecological management of the basin. In this study, the Mann–Kendall nonparametric test method, double cumulative curve method, cumulative anomaly method, and cumulative slope change rate analysis method were used to quantitatively study the effects of climate change and human activities on runoff and sediment load changes at different spatial scales in the Huangfuchuan River basin. The results show that (1) from 1966 to 2020, the annual runoff and annual sediment load discharge in the Huangfuchuan River basin showed a significant decreasing trend. Among them, the reduction in runoff and sediment in the control sub-basin of Shagedu Station in the upper reaches was more obvious than that in the whole basin. The mutation points of runoff and sediment load in the two basins were 1979 and 1998. The water–sediment relationship exhibits a power function pattern. (2) After the abrupt change, in the change period B (1980–1997), the contribution rates of climate change and human activities to runoff and sediment load reduction in the Huangfuchuan River basin were 24.12%, 75.88% and 20.05%, 79.95%, respectively. In the change period C (1998–2020), the contribution rates of the two factors to the runoff and sediment load reduction in the Huangfuchuan River basin were 18.91%, 81.09% and 15.61%, 84.39%, respectively. Among them, the influence of precipitation in the upper reaches of the Huangfuchuan River basin on the change in runoff and sediment load is higher than that of the whole basin, and the influence on the decrease of sediment load discharge is more significant before 1998. There are certain stage differences and spatial scale effects. (3) Human activities such as large-scale vegetation restoration and construction of silt dam engineering measures are the main reasons for the reduction in runoff and sediment load in the Huangfuchuan River basin and have played a greater role after 1998.

Studying the variation characteristics of species diversity and soil properties across different forest types, as well as their interrelationships, enhances our understanding of the differences in forest growth and development within the Pisha sandstone area. In this study, we sampled and analyzed plant diversity along with physical and chemical soil factors from four distinct forest types in the Pisha sandstone region of Inner Mongolia. Our objective was to explore the characteristics of species diversity and soil properties associated with these forest types and to elucidate the relationship between them. The results showed that the order of soil moisture, nutrients, and species diversity in the four forest types was PT > AA > CK > PA.PT; this was significantly higher than other forest types. AA played an important role in the conservation of soil moisture and nutrients under the forest, and the soil nutrient level of PA was significantly lower. Using correlation analysis, we determined that soil properties were the key factors affecting the understory species diversity of different forest types, and SWC, SOM, and AN were the dominant factors in the relationship between the two. Using PCA, it was found that PT and AA had good ecological benefits of soil and water conservation. Our findings indicate that soil nutrient content and moisture levels are critical factors limiting plant species diversity in the Pisha sandstone area. Furthermore, PT and AA demonstrate a beneficial effect on ecological restoration efforts within this region. This study offers a theoretical foundation for managing the process of forest ecological restoration in the Pisha sandstone area.

The middle reaches of the Yellow River, with an exceeding amount of coarse sediment compared to the stream flow and the lower reaches, with severe sediment deposition, are key regions for sediment control in the Yellow River Basin. Recent years have witnessed efforts to return farmland land to forest and grassland and the launch of the Three-North Shelterbelt Forest Program, but the effectiveness of these measures remains to be studied. Research on factors influencing runoff depth (RD) and sediment yield (SY) sheds light on the mechanism of soil erosion in the study area. The present study focuses on the standard runoff fields in the Kuye River Basin, where ecological restoration measures (arbor forest land, shrub grassland, natural grassland, artificial grassland, cultivated land, Bare land) for various slope steepness (S) have been taken. Based on a six-year observation of the SY and RD in these fields, we aim to identify the primary factors influencing soil erosion, based on rainfall data and slope gradients. Using rainfall data and slope steepness factors, we explored the dominant factors that influence runoff and SY. The results showed that: (1) the rainfall events with short-duration, medium rainfall, and medium rainfall intensity were the most frequent; (2) the rainfall events with medium duration, heavy rainfall, and heavy rainfall intensity produced the most serious runoff and sediment; (3) using machine learning methods, the researchers found that the gradient boosting decision tree (GBDT) model was the most suitable for the study area, as it provided the best simulation of soil erosion. The structural equation model reveals that there is a significant correlation between runoff depth (RD) and soil erosion modulus (SEM). Time of precipitation (T), average precipitation intensity (Iavg), maximum intensity of precipitation in thirty minutes (I30) and slope steepness (S) are factors that indirectly influence runoff SY. The present study provides technical guidance for the ecological restoration and improvement of different slope surfaces in major sections of the middle reaches of the Yellow River.

In ecological restoration of arid/semi-arid sandy lands, micro-topographic variations and artificial shrub arrangement synergistically drive vegetation recovery and soil quality improvement. As a typical fragile ecosystem in northern China, the Mu Us Sandy Land has long suffered wind erosion, desertification, soil infertility, and vegetation degradation, demanding precise vegetation configuration for ecological rehabilitation. This study analyzed soil nutrients, plant diversity, and their correlations under various micro-topographic conditions across different types of artificial shrub plantations in the Mu Us Sandy Land. Employing one-way and two-way ANOVA, we compared the significant differences in soil nutrients and plant diversity indices among different micro-topographic conditions and shrub species. Additionally, redundancy analysis (RDA) was conducted to explore the direct and indirect relationships between micro-topography, shrub species, soil nutrients, and plant diversity. The results show the following: 1. The interdune depressions have the highest plant diversity and optimal soil nutrients, with relatively suitable pH values; the windward slopes and slope tops, due to severe wind erosion, have poor soil nutrients, high pH values, and the lowest plant diversity. Both micro-topography and vegetation can significantly affect soil nutrients and plant diversity (p < 0.05), and vegetation has a greater impact on soil nutrients. 2. The correlation between surface soil nutrients and plant diversity is the strongest, and the correlation weakens with increasing soil depth; under different micro-topographic conditions, the influence of soil nutrients on plant diversity varies. 3. In sandy land ecological restoration, a “vegetation type + terrain matching” strategy should be implemented, combining the characteristics of micro-topography and the ecological functions of shrubs for precise configuration, such as planting Corethrodendron fruticosum on windward slopes and slope tops to rapidly replenish nutrients, promoting Salix psammophila and mixed plantation in interdune depressions and leeward slopes to accumulate organic matter, and prioritizing Amorpha fruticosa in areas requiring soil pH adjustment. This study provides a scientific basis and management insights for the ecological restoration and vegetation configuration of the Mu Us Sandy Land.

Assessing soil quality across different microtopographies in hilly and gully regions is essential for enhancing the ecological environment, guiding plantation cultivation, and promoting sustainable development. In this study, soil quality was evaluated across six microtopographies based on 18 physical and chemical indicators. A minimum data set (MDS) was constructed using principal component analysis (PCA), and soil quality indices (SQI) were calculated for both the total data set (TDS) and MDS through membership function (MF), linear (SL), and nonlinear scoring (SNL) methods. The results indicate that the MDS for the soil quality evaluation of Caragana korshinskii plantation in the hilly and gully region is composed of moisture content (MC), total phosphorus (TP), total potassium (TK), pH and available nitrogen (AN), which can explain 74.801% of the information of TDS. The SQI calculated by the six methods are all extremely significantly correlated. In MDS, SNL performs the best and is the closest to the calculation result of TDS. Soil quality varied significantly across microtopographies, with Gently sloped terrace exhibiting the highest quality and Gully the lowest, reflecting the strong influence of microtopography on soil properties and nutrient distribution. Total phosphorus (TP) was identified as the primary limiting factor, particularly in collapsed terrain. These findings not only provide a theoretical foundation and practical parameters for soil quality assessment in hilly and gully regions but also offer valuable insights for similar ecosystems globally, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas facing soil degradation and vegetation restoration challenges.

AimsThe landscape of sand-covered hilly areas has been reshaped by afforestation in these areas. Dynamic changes in soil moisture and nutrients in forests after afforestation have become evident. However, clear studies have not focused on whether rainfall interception in these plantations affects soil concentration or concentration.MethodsThis largely limits the development of effective management techniques for plantations and hinders the optimal utilization and management of water resources. In this study, an investigation was conducted on the plant community structure, rainfall interception characteristics, and soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (N) concentrations or concentrations of three different plantations in the sand-covered hilly area of the Kuye River Basin. Grassland (Gl) was taken as the control.ResultsThe critical throughfall values for C. korshinskii (Ck), S. Cheilophila (Sc) and P. sylvestris (Ps) were 0.28, 1.78 and 2.04 mm, respectively. Corresponding stemflow critical values measured were 2.93, 1.08, and 3.30 mm, respectively. Ps exhibited the highest interception capacity, which was attributable to its dense canopy and layered branch architecture. Sc ranked second due to its larger leaf area, while Ck showed the lowest interception because of wide branch angles and smaller leaf area. Post-rainfall ground-level soil moisture and litter deposition are regulated by vegetation canopy structure in a direct way. SOC and N concentrations are subsequently controlled by these ground-level parameters. SOC concentration under Ps was 1.54 compared to that under Gl, while N concentration was 1.50 times higher, respectively.ConclusionsThus, Ps demonstrates optimal effectiveness for improving soil quality in sandy hill restoration areas and merits continued implementation in this region.

The Kuye River Basin, as an extremely important tributary of the Yellow River Basin, assessing its ecological environment’s response to human activities and natural environmental changes is of utmost importance. This can provide a critical reference for the protection of the ecological environment and sustainable development. This study selected major ecological and environmental issues in the study area, including soil erosion, water resources, and biodiversity, and constructed a comprehensive ecological sensitivity index using the spatial distance index model. Analyze the fluctuation intensity and trend of ecological sensitivity in the Kuye River Basin using grid coding models; use the Geodetector to analyze the main driving factors of its ecological sensitivity; and finally, adopt a method combining the “static” current state of ecological sensitivity with the “dynamic” trend of ecological sensitivity changes for ecological governance zoning. The results indicate the following: (1) the ecological sensitivity of the Kuye River Basin at different periods shows significant spatial differentiation, with a distribution pattern of low in the northwest and high in the central and southwestern areas in 2005, and a distribution pattern of low at both ends and high in the central area in 2020; (2) from 2005 to 2020, the overall ecological sensitivity showed a decreasing trend, with the area proportion of continuously declining regions accounting for 50.91%; (3) biodiversity is the main driving factor for the comprehensive ecological sensitivity of the Kuye River Basin; (4) the Kuye River Basin can be divided into four ecological zones: ecological environment protection area, ecological environment optimization area, ecological environment management area, and ecological environment governance area. Based on the characteristics of each region, it is recommended to adopt a differentiated ecological management plan to enhance the sustainability of its green development.

The Kuye River is the second largest tributary of the middle Yellow River. (1) Background: The Kuye River Basin, a typical erosion area of the Loess Plateau region, faces significant environmental challenges and intense human activities. Balancing environmental sustainability and economic development in this region is urgent. (2) Methods: This study analyses the phenomena, evolutionary processes, driving mechanisms, and future development trends. We assess ecological risks and drivers of land use change using data from 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2022. (3) Results: Farmland, grassland, and construction land are the main land use types, accounting for 85.63% of the total area. Construction land increased by 7.95 times over 22 years, mainly due to the conversion of woodland, grassland, and farmland. The landscape pattern increased in patches from 4713 in 2000 to 6522 in 2022. Patch density decreased from 0.0945 to 0.0771 between 2000 and 2015, then rose to 0.0788 in 2022. Post-2015, increased human intervention and urban development led to significant landscape fragmentation and higher ecological risk, expected to persist until 2030. Geographical detector analysis identified distance from roads, distance from cities, night light, and precipitation as key factors influencing landscape ecological risk. The interaction of anthropogenic disturbance with other factors showed a non-linear increase in risk, with combined factors having a greater impact than individual ones. (4) Conclusions: The Kuye River Basin’s landscape ecological risk is influenced by both natural conditions and human activities. To achieve sustainability, it is essential to protect critical areas, regulate development, and improve the adaptive management of ecological risks through innovative policies, integrated regulations, and technological solutions for ecosystem restoration. These findings provide empirical evidence to support decision-making and underscore the need for comprehensive strategies to mitigate ecological risks and promote sustainable development in the Kuye River Basin.

As global ecological degradation intensifies, the long-term impacts of afforestation on productivity and soil fertility in barren lands have become critical in improving global ecological security and productivity. Through meta-analysis, this study integrates data from 109 barren land afforestation sites across China, aiming to comprehensively analyze the effects on plant productivity and soil fertility while identifying the key environmental drivers of these changes. We found that afforestation consistently enhances plant productivity across 60 years. However, soil fertility and moisture initially surged significantly after afforestation but gradually declined after the first decade, indicating the limited long-term benefits. Climatic factors, namely precipitation and humidity index, are crucial in enhancing plant productivity, while geographic factors, specifically lower elevations and gentler slopes, are associated with greater increases in soil fertility. Elevation and slope are two key factors that influence soil moisture after afforestation. These findings highlight the need for ongoing soil management and ecological maintenance in afforestation projects to sustain the soil fertility benefits. Our study provides a robust scientific foundation for afforestation strategies aimed at barren land restoration and offers valuable insights for policy formulation in barren land afforestation.

The Pisha sandstone area, situated in the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River in China, is characterized by severe soil and water erosion, making it one of the most critical regions on the Loess Plateau. The rugged terrain and exposed bedrock complicate management efforts for this area, posing challenges for accurate forecasting using soil erosion models. Through an analysis of terrain, vegetation, and precipitation impacts on soil erosion, this study offers theoretical support for predicting soil erosion within the exposed Pisha sandstone area of the Loess Plateau. This has substantial implications for guiding water and soil conservation measures in this region. Focusing on China’s exposed sandstone area within the Geqiugou watershed, temporal and spatial changes in vegetation cover and land use from 1990 to 2020 were analyzed. The result shows that, from 1990 to 2020, the grassland area has exhibited a consistent downward trend, with successive reductions of 64.86% to 59.46%. The area of low vegetation cover witnessed a significant decline of 59.29% in 2020 compared to that in 1990. The moderate erosion area decreased from 84.52 to 57.17 km2. The significant reduction in soil and water loss can be attributed to the expansion of forest and grassland areas, with the implementation of the Grain for Green project serving as a key policy driver for facilitating this expansion. This study provided a good example of combining rainfall with vegetation coverage to fast estimation soil erosion. A mathematical relationship between the vegetation rainfall coupling index (RV) and soil erosion was established with strong fitting effects, enabling estimation of the soil erosion volume under varying slope conditions within Pisha sandstone areas. The main focus of future soil and water conservation in the Pisha sandstone area should be on effectively managing the channel slope and minimizing exposed bedrock areas through a combination of slope cutting, the application of anticorrosive materials, and the implementation of artificial vegetation planting.

Desert ecosystems, particularly in arid regions like the Tengger Desert, are highly sensitive to both anthropogenic activities and climate change, making the monitoring and evaluation of ecological quality critical for sustainable management and restoration efforts. This study analyses the spatiotemporal evolution of ecological quality in the Tengger Desert from 2001 to 2021 using the Remote Sensing Ecological Index (RSEI), incorporating meteorological factors (temperature, precipitation, wind speed), topographical factors (elevation, slope, relief) and anthropogenic indices (land use and land cover). The mean RSEI fluctuated between 0.1542 and 0.2906, indicating poor ecological quality, with a peak in 2008 attributed to national ecological projects. Despite initial improvements, overall ecological quality declined at a rate of 0.0008 a−1 from 2008 to 2021. Spatially, degradation was most pronounced in the central and southern areas. Due to sand-binding engineering in the Tengger Desert in 2008 and the mountain climate suitable for vegetation growth, improvements occurred in the northeast and southwest. Moran’s I and Hurst index analyses revealed significant spatial clustering of ecological quality and persistence of degradation trends, with over 49.53% of the area projected to experience further deterioration. Geodetector analysis identified land use and land use cover as the most influential factors on RSEI, especially in combination with wind speed, temperature, and precipitation, underscoring the role of both human activities and climate. The study highlights the need for sustained ecological management, particularly in areas showing continuous degradation, to prevent further ecological deterioration.

Larix gmelinii is an important ecological construction tree species in northern China, and its carbon storage and distribution characteristics are of great significance for evaluating the carbon balance and climate effect of forest ecosystems. However, at present, there is a lack of systematic research on the carbon storage of L. gmelinii forests and its change with forest age. In this paper, the biomass and carbon density of L. gmelinii forests at different ages and the distribution of carbon storage in vegetation and soil were analyzed by means of sample plot investigation and model simulation in the northern forest area of Daxing’anling, Inner Mongolia. The influence of forest age on the carbon storage and carbon pool distribution characteristics of L. gmelinii forests and the mechanism of influencing factors were also discussed. Results show that: (1) As forest age increased, the total amount of carbon pools initially increased and then decreased, and the distribution structure of carbon pools showed a trend of transferring from soil to trees. The proportion of soil carbon pools gradually decreased (72.72–51.87%), while the proportion of tree carbon pools gradually increased (23.98–39.33%). The proportion of shrub and grass carbon pools was also relatively stable (0.51–0.53%). (2) Soil carbon pool was affected by the input and output of soil organic matter, soil depth, soil carbon content, and soil bulk density, shrub–grass carbon pool was affected by undergrowth light conditions and soil moisture, litter carbon pool was affected by litter input and output, and the carbon pool of trees was affected by the growth rate and carbon balance of trees. This study provides scientific basis and management suggestions for the carbon storage capacity of L. gmelinii forests and the mitigation of climate change.

The Genhe River Basin is an ecological barrier and water conservation area in northern China, but its hydrological process has undergone significant changes due to climate change and human activities, endangering ecosystem functions and water resource security. Systematic research on the influencing mechanisms and laws of hydrological processes in different ecosystems in this region remains lacking. Therefore, this study analyzed the effects of different anthropogenic factors on the hydrological processes of typical ecosystems in the Genhe River Basin. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool distributed hydrological model was used to simulate the surface runoff, evapotranspiration, and soil water content of the three ecosystems of forest, grassland, and farmland in four different periods of 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2010. The spatial and temporal changes in water resources in typical ecosystems under the influence of historical climate change were demonstrated. Results showed that under different land use scenarios, the surface runoff of the farmland ecosystem increased, the evapotranspiration remained unchanged, and the soil water content decreased. The surface runoff of forest and grassland ecosystems did not change significantly, the evapotranspiration increased, and the soil water content decreased. This study reveals the influence of different human factors on the hydrological processes of typical ecosystems in the Genhe River Basin and provides a scientific basis for water resources management and ecological protection in the region.

Afforestation in the transitional zone between the loess hilly area and the Mu Us Sandy Land of China has reshaped the landscape and greatly affected eco-hydrological processes. Plantations are crucial for regulating local net rainfall inputs, thus making it necessary to quantify the closure loss of plantation species in drought and semi-arid areas. To quantify and model the canopy interception of these plantations, we conducted rainfall redistribution measurement experiments. Based on this, we used the modified Gash model to simulate their interception losses, and the model applicability across varying rainfall types was further compared and verified. Herein, Caragana korshinskii, Salix psammophila, and Pinus sylvestris plantations in the Kuye River mountain tract were chosen to measure the precipitation distribution from May to October (growing season). The applicability of a modified Gash model for different stands was then evaluated using the assessed data. The results showed that the canopy interception characteristics of each typical plantation were throughfall, interception, and stemflow. The relative error of canopy interception of C. korshinskii simulated by the modified Gash model was 8.79%. The relative error of simulated canopy interception of S. psammophila was 4.19%. The relative error of canopy interception simulation of P. sylvestris was 13.28%, and the modified Gash model had good applicability in the Kuye River Basin. The modified Gash model has the greatest sensitivity to rainfall intensity among the parameters of the C. korshinskii and S. psammophila forest. The sensitivity of P. sylvestris in the modified Gash model is that the canopy cover has the greatest influence, followed by the mean rainfall intensity. Our results provide a scientific basis for the rational use of water resources and vegetation restoration in the transitional zone between the loess hilly region and the Mu Us Sandy Land. This study is of import for the restoration and sustainability of fragile ecosystems in the region.