Phosphate minerals enriched in rare-earth elements (REEs) represent one of the typical mineral phases on the Moon. Nevertheless, their space weathering behavior remains insufficiently understood. In this study, two types of REE-enriched phosphate minerals—changesite-(Y) and monazite—were identified in the Chang’e-6 lunar soil sample, which was collected from the Apollo Basin on the lunar far side, a region characterized by low REE abundance. Their potential formation mechanisms are postulated as follows: (1) they originated as exogenous materials delivered as impact ejecta from thorium-enriched source regions within the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin; (2) they are products of crystallization during the late-stage solidification of the lunar magma ocean. Furthermore, the two phosphate phases exhibit contrasting records of solar wind radiation damage. Abundant radiation damage tracks are observed in changesite-(Y), whereas no such tracks are present in coexisting monazite or apatite, reflecting differential thermal histories at the microscale. These findings contribute to a better understanding of material transport and mixing processes within the SPA basin, reveal microscale heterogeneity in space weathering, and have implications for future in situ resource utilization on the Moon.

Abstract The development of high-efficiency thermal insulation materials is crucial for terrestrial and space applications under extreme conditions. Synthetic aerogels, featuring porosities up to 99%, can reach the values of ~10 mW m−1 K−1 under vacuum. However, whether natural materials can achieve this performance remains an open question. Here, we report lunar agglutinates from the Chang’E-5 mission that exhibit thermal conductivities as low as ~8 mW m− 1 K− 1 under vacuum, surpassing most high-performance aerogel materials — at modest porosities of only 7–30%. Integrated structural characterizations and atomic-to-mesoscale simulations demonstrate that the space-weathering-forged multiscale voids and multiphase interfaces collaboratively suppress phonon transport within agglutinate particles, leading to their ultra-low thermal conductivities. These natural structures demonstrate a non-porosity-dominated thermal insulation mechanism. The findings redefine the microstructural design principles for super-insulating materials and provide a particle-scale explanation for the ultralow thermal conductivity of lunar regolith.

The redox processes and the formation of magnetic anomalies on the lunar surface are hot topics in lunar science research. Magnetite is the only confirmed ferromagnetic and high-valence iron oxide mineral in lunar soil samples, making it a key target for studying these processes. A recent study of Chang'e-5 (CE5) lunar samples found that magnetite was widespread in the high-Ti lunar basalt regolith and was formed by impacts on the lunar surface. It remains to be confirmed whether this type of magnetite is broadly distributed, and its magnetic characteristics require further analysis. We conducted a micro-analysis of impact-sputtered troilite in the CE5 and Chang'e-6 (CE6) lunar samples. Submicron magnetite and associated alpha-Fe were widespread in the impactsputtered troilite. The oxygen-bearing volatiles generated or released by the impact may be critical in the formation of magnetite. Further analysis of ferromagnetic materials indicates this magnetite type exhibits magnetic vortices that are weaker than those of alpha-Fe. Impact-derived magnetite and alpha-Fe may be potential magnetic minerals responsible for the magnetic anomalies on the lunar surface. Our research confirms that impact-induced redox reactions and their products, such as magnetite, are widely distributed in the lunar basalt regolith, which may be one reason for magnetic anomalies on the lunar surface.

Solar wind irradiation, as a crucial space weathering mechanism, alters the microscopic characteristics and reflectance spectrum of the lunar regolith, and its cumulative effect is strongly related to the exposure time. Ilmenite is highly resistant to solar wind irradiation. Here, we combined transmission electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and electron energy loss spectroscopy to systematically illustrate the diverse space-weathered rims on the shoveled and drilled Chang'e-5 ilmenites resulting from varying degrees of solar wind irradiation, revealing that solar wind plays a key role in the early-stage alteration of exposed lunar soil. In addition, the space weathering microstructure observations are consistent with the model-predicted exposure history at the Chang'e-5 landing site and prove that the Chang'e-5 deep-layered drilled (~65 cm) and surface samples (<3 cm) have been exposed for a longer time than that of the intermediate-layered drilled samples. We conclude that the ilmenite rims have the potential to be an effective indicator for comparing the relative exposure ages of regolith on airless bodies. Ilmenite grains collected in lunar regolith sampled by the Chang'e-5 sample return mission reveal that the 1 m deep core contains a mixture of space-weathered material, buried ejecta from the nearby Xu Guangqi crater, and a lunar paleoregolith.

The Chang'E-6 (CE-6) mission successfully achieved return of the first samples from the far side of the Moon. The sampling site of CE-6 is located in the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin-the largest, deepest and oldest impact basin on the Moon. The 1935.3 g of CE-6 lunar samples exhibit distinct characteristics compared with previous lunar samples. This study analyses the physical, mineralogical, petrographic and geochemical properties of CE-6 lunar scooped samples. The CE-6 soil has a significantly lower bulk density (0.983 g/cm(3)) and true density (3.035 g/cm(3)) than the Chang'E-5 (CE-5) samples. The grain size of the CE-6 soil exhibits a bimodal distribution, indicating a mixture of different compositions. Mineralogically, the CE-6 soil consists of 32.6% plagioclase (anorthite and bytownite), 19.7% augite, 10% pigeonite and 3.6% orthopyroxene, and with low content of olivine (0.5%) but high content of amorphous glass (29.4%). Geochemically, the bulk composition of CE-6 soil is rich in Al2O3 (14%) and CaO (12%) but low in FeO (17%), and trace elements of CE-6 soil such as K (similar to 630 ppm), U (0.26 ppm), Th (0.92 ppm) and rare-earth elements are significantly lower than those of the lunar soils within the Procellarum KREEP Terrane. The local basalts are characterized by low-Ti (TiO2, 5.08%), low-Al (Al2O3 9.85%) and low-K (similar to 830 ppm), features suggesting that the CE-6 soil is a mixture of local basalts and non-basaltic ejecta. The returned CE-6 sample contains diverse lithic fragments, including local mare basalt, breccia, agglutinate, glasses and leucocrate. These local mare basalts document the volcanic history of the lunar far side, while the non-basaltic fragments may offer critical insights into the lunar highland crust, SPA impact melts and potentially the deep lunar mantle, making these samples highly significant for scientific research.

月球一直是人类探测太阳系的起点和首选目标.中国的探月工程（嫦娥工程）于2004年立项启动,目前已成功完成了“绕、落、回”三步走的探测规划.围绕地月空间环境、月表物质、形貌、地质构造、月球次表层结构与内部结构、月球的起源与演化等当前月球科学研究的基本问题取得了一系列瞩目的研究成果,进一步加深了人类对于月球的认识.文章简要回顾了中国探月工程的发展历程,对主要研究成果和科学认识进行了总结,并对中国月球与行星探测的未来发展做出了展望.

Orbital observations suggest that Mars underwent a recent 'ice age' (roughly 0.4-2.1 million years ago), during which a latitude-dependent ice-dust mantle (LDM)1,2 was emplaced. A subsequent decrease in obliquity amplitude resulted in the emergence of an 'interglacial period'1,3 during which the lowermost latitude LDM ice4-6 was etched and removed, returning it to the polar cap. These observations are consistent with polar cap stratigraphy1,7, but lower- to mid-latitude in situ surface observations in support of a glacial-interglacial transition that can be reconciled with mesoscale and global atmospheric circulation models8 is lacking. Here we present a suite of measurements obtained by the Zhurong rover during its traverse across the southern LDM region in Utopia Planitia, Mars. We find evidence for a stratigraphic sequence involving initial barchan dune formation, indicative of north-easterly winds, cementation of dune sediments, followed by their erosion by north-westerly winds, eroding the barchan dunes and producing distinctive longitudinal dunes, with the transition in wind regime consistent with the end of the ice age. The results are compatible with the Martian polar stratigraphic record and will help improve our understanding of the ancient climate history of Mars9.

Research Article| December 01, 2023 Lunar Mare Basaltic Volcanism: Volcanic Features and Emplacement Processes James W. Head; James W. Head Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Lionel Wilson; Lionel Wilson Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YQ, UK Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Harald Hiesinger; Harald Hiesinger Institut für Planetologie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Carolyn van der Bogert; Carolyn van der Bogert Institut für Planetologie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Yuan Chen; Yuan Chen Key Laboratory for Lunar and Deep Space Exploration, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar James L. Dickson; James L. Dickson Division of Geological and Planetary Science, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E California Blvd, MC 150–21. Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Lisa R. Gaddis; Lisa R. Gaddis Lunar and Planetary Institute, 3600 Bay Area Boulevard, Houston, Texas 77058, USA Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Junichi Haruyama; Junichi Haruyama Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, JAXA, Japan (3–1-1 Yoshinodai, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 252–5210, Japan) Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Erica R. Jawin; Erica R. Jawin Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History, Department of Mineral Sciences, PO Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013–7012, USA Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Lauren M. Jozwiak; Lauren M. Jozwiak Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, 11100 Johns Hopkins Rd, Laurel, MD 20723, USA Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Chunlai Li; Chunlai Li Key Laboratory for Lunar and Deep Space Exploration, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Jianzhong Liu; Jianzhong Liu Center for Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550081, China Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Tomokatsu Morota; Tomokatsu Morota Department of Earth and Planetary Science, University of Tokyo, Bunkyō-ku, Tokyo, Japan Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Debra H. Needham; Debra H. Needham National Aeronautics and Space Administration Headquarters, Washington, D.C. 20546, USA Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Lillian R. Ostrach; Lillian R. Ostrach US Geological Survey Astrogeology Science Center, 2255 N. Gemini Drive, Flagstaff, AZ USA Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Carle M. Pieters; Carle M. Pieters Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Tabb C. Prissel; Tabb C. Prissel Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science Division, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX 77058 USA Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Yuqi Qian; Yuqi Qian Planetary Science Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Le Qiao; Le Qiao Institute of Space Science, Shandong University, Weihai, 264209, China Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Malcolm R. Rutherford; Malcolm R. Rutherford Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar David R. Scott; David R. Scott Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Jennifer L. Whitten; Jennifer L. Whitten Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118 USA Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Long Xiao; Long Xiao Planetary Science Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Feng Zhang; Feng Zhang National Space Science Center, No. 1 Nanertiao, Zhongguancun, Haidian District, Beijing, China Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Ouyang Ziyuan Ouyang Ziyuan Key Laboratory for Lunar and Deep Space Exploration, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Author and Article Information James W. Head Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA Lionel Wilson Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YQ, UK Harald Hiesinger Institut für Planetologie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany Carolyn van der Bogert Institut für Planetologie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, 48149 Münster, Germany Yuan Chen Key Laboratory for Lunar and Deep Space Exploration, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China James L. Dickson Division of Geological and Planetary Science, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E California Blvd, MC 150–21. Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA Lisa R. Gaddis Lunar and Planetary Institute, 3600 Bay Area Boulevard, Houston, Texas 77058, USA Junichi Haruyama Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, JAXA, Japan (3–1-1 Yoshinodai, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 252–5210, Japan) Erica R. Jawin Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History, Department of Mineral Sciences, PO Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013–7012, USA Lauren M. Jozwiak Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, 11100 Johns Hopkins Rd, Laurel, MD 20723, USA Chunlai Li Key Laboratory for Lunar and Deep Space Exploration, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China Jianzhong Liu Center for Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550081, China Tomokatsu Morota Department of Earth and Planetary Science, University of Tokyo, Bunkyō-ku, Tokyo, Japan Debra H. Needham National Aeronautics and Space Administration Headquarters, Washington, D.C. 20546, USA Lillian R. Ostrach US Geological Survey Astrogeology Science Center, 2255 N. Gemini Drive, Flagstaff, AZ USA Carle M. Pieters Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA Tabb C. Prissel Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science Division, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX 77058 USA Yuqi Qian Planetary Science Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China Le Qiao Institute of Space Science, Shandong University, Weihai, 264209, China Malcolm R. Rutherford Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA David R. Scott Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA Jennifer L. Whitten Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118 USA Long Xiao Planetary Science Institute, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China Feng Zhang National Space Science Center, No. 1 Nanertiao, Zhongguancun, Haidian District, Beijing, China Ouyang Ziyuan Key Laboratory for Lunar and Deep Space Exploration, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China Publisher: Mineralogical Society of America First Online: 04 Dec 2023 Copyright © 2023 by the Mineralogical Society of AmericaMineralogical Society of America Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry (2023) 89 (1): 453–507. https://doi.org/10.2138/rmg.2023.89.11 Article history First Online: 04 Dec 2023 Cite View This Citation Add to Citation Manager Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn Email Permissions Search Site Citation James W. Head, Lionel Wilson, Harald Hiesinger, Carolyn van der Bogert, Yuan Chen, James L. Dickson, Lisa R. Gaddis, Junichi Haruyama, Erica R. Jawin, Lauren M. Jozwiak, Chunlai Li, Jianzhong Liu, Tomokatsu Morota, Debra H. Needham, Lillian R. Ostrach, Carle M. Pieters, Tabb C. Prissel, Yuqi Qian, Le Qiao, Malcolm R. Rutherford, David R. Scott, Jennifer L. Whitten, Long Xiao, Feng Zhang, Ouyang Ziyuan; Lunar Mare Basaltic Volcanism: Volcanic Features and Emplacement Processes. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 2023;; 89 (1): 453–507. doi: https://doi.org/10.2138/rmg.2023.89.11 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Refmanager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentBy SocietyReviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry Search Advanced Search Volcanism is a fundamental process in the geological evolution of the Moon, providing clues to the composition and structure of the mantle, the location and duration of interior melting, the nature of convection and lunar thermal evolution. Progress in understanding volcanism has been remarkable in the short 60-year span of the Space Age. Before Sputnik 1 in 1957, the lunar farside was unknown, the origin of the dark lunar maria was debated (sedimentary or volcanic), and significant controversy surrounded the question of how the multitude of craters on the surface formed. Was the Moon formed hot or cold, was the... You do not have access to this content, please speak to your institutional administrator if you feel you should have access.

1978年5月28日,美国时任总统吉米·卡特委派国家安全事务助理兹比格涅夫·卡齐米日·布热津斯基到访中国,为祝贺1979年1月1日中、美将正式建立外交关系,赠予中国一份特殊的礼物——1克重的月球岩石样品.这是中国科学界第一次接触月球岩石样品. 2020年12月17日,中国探月工程三期发射的月球探测器——嫦娥五号,完成了在月球上的自动采样与返回,将1731克月壤和月岩带回了中国.这是中国第一次完成月球无人采样,中国成为世界上第三个从月球采样返回的国家,也是人类时隔44年再度携带月球样品回到地球.

A geologic time scale is a chronological system that separates the geological strata of a planetary body into different units in temporal sequence and shows its progressive evolution. The time scale of the Moon was established a half-century ago during the telescopic-early Apollo exploration era, using data with limited spatial coverage and resolution. The past decades have seen a wide array of studies, which have significantly extended our understanding of global lunar geologic evolution. Based on a comprehensive review of lunar evolution with respect to the dynamical changes, we propose two major updates to the current lunar time scale paradigm to include the evolution of both endogenic and exogenic dynamic forces now known to have influenced early lunar history. Firstly, based on the temporal interplay of exogenic and endogenic processes in altering the Moon, we defined three Eon/Eonothem-level units to represent three dynamical evolutionary phases. Secondly, the pre-Nectarian System is redefined and divided as the magma ocean-era Magma-oceanian System and the following Aitkenian System beginning with the South Pole-Aitken basin. The ejecta of this basin, Das Formation, was deposited on the primordial lunar crust as the oldest stratum produced from exogenic processes. The updated lunar time scale, facilitated by the post-Apollo exploration and research advances, provides an integrated framework to depict the evolution of the Moon and has important implications for the geologic study of other terrestrial planets.

Lunar surface chemistry is essential for revealing petrological characteristics to understand the evolution of the Moon. Existing chemistry mapping from Apollo and Luna returned samples could only calibrate chemical features before 3.0 Gyr, missing the critical late period of the Moon. Here we present major oxides chemistry maps by adding distinctive 2.0 Gyr Chang’e-5 lunar soil samples in combination with a deep learning-based inversion model. The inferred chemical contents are more precise than the Lunar Prospector Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (GRS) maps and are closest to returned samples abundances compared to existing literature. The verification of in situ measurement data acquired by Chang'e 3 and Chang'e 4 lunar rover demonstrated that Chang’e-5 samples are indispensable ground truth in mapping lunar surface chemistry. From these maps, young mare basalt units are determined which can be potential sites in future sample return mission to constrain the late lunar magmatic and thermal history.

中国的探月之路始于2004年,那一年,中国首次探月工程立项启动.2007年,中国首个月球探测 器嫦娥一号绕月飞行,绘制出月球表面影像图和月球表面主要元素与矿物分布图,全球月壤层分布与厚度变化图,计算出月壤中蕴藏大约110万吨氦-3资源.未来核聚变发电实现之后,氦-3是一种储备能源原料,足够全人类使用1万年.

As the only natural satellite of the earth, the Moon has always been the first choice for human exploration of the solar system. China’s lunar exploration project (Chang’e project) was launched in 2004. At present, it has created a perfect end to the three phases of “orbiting, landing and returning”. A series of remarkable research achievements have been made on the basic issues of current lunar scientific research, such as the Earth-Moon space environment, lunar surface material, morphology, geological structure, lunar subsurface and internal structure, and the origin and evolution of the Moon, further deepening the human understanding of the Moon. This paper briefly reviews the development process of China’s lunar exploration project, summarizes the main research results and scientific understanding, and finally prospects to the future development of China’s lunar and planetary exploration.

Frequent impacts on the Moon have changed the physical and chemical properties of the lunar regolith, with new materials deposited from the impact-induced vapor phase. Here, we combined nanoscale chemical and structural analysis to identify the mineral digenite (4Cu2S·CuS) in Chang'e-5 lunar soil. This is the first report of digenite in a lunar sample. The surface-correlated digenite phase is undifferentiated in distribution and compositionally distinct from its hosts, suggesting that it originated from vapor-phase deposition. The presence of an Al-rich impact glass bead suggests that a thermal effect provided by impact ejecta is the main heat source for the evaporation of Cu-S components from a cupriferous troilite precursor, and the digenite condensed from these Cu-S vapors. A large pure metallic iron (Fe0) particle and high Cu content within the studied Cu-Fe-S grain suggest that this grain was most likely derived from a highly differentiated and reduced melt.

Scientific knowledge of lunar lithologies was first acquired in the 1960s-1970s.The space race between the United States(U.S.)and Soviet Union has promoted numerous manned and robotic lunar exploration missions.Utilizing datasets from these missions,the first series of lunar geologic maps was prepared and published by the U.S.Geological Survey(USGS).The definition of lunar geological features in these maps was mostly based on morphological characteristics but lacked lithological constraints owing to the incompleteness of the compositional datasets avail-able.

The tectonic evolution of the Moon is driven by both endogenic(e.g.,magmatism)and exogenic(e.g.,meteorite impact)forces.A tectonic map of the Moon provides key information about the spa-tiotemporal distribution of structures and tectonic units.Although the Moon has no plate tectonics,its surface can be divided into dif-ferent terranes due to the uneven evolution[1].We define these terranes as tectonic units.Structures,such as craters and faults,are the basic elements of the tectonic units.As a synthesis of cur-rent knowledge on lunar tectonics and evolutionary history,lunar tectonic maps are a fundamental resource for scientific research,exploration planning,and landing site selection[2].

Lunar chronology models are built by associating the radiometric ages of samples returned by the Apollo and Luna missions measured in the laboratory with compiled crater distributions of those sites. Such models have not only been widely used to determine the absolute ages of various regions on the Moon 1 – 6 , but have also been generalized to date the surfaces of the rocky bodies of the inner Solar System 7 – 12 . However, there is a gap in lunar samples ages between 3.0 Gyr ago and 1.0 Gyr ago 13 , which occupies almost half of the history of the Moon. Chang’e-5, the first lunar sample return mission since the Luna 24 lander in 1976, brought back basalt material from a young mare area that has been dated to the centre of this gap at 2.030 ± 0.004 Gyr old 14 . Using this radiometric age, we updated the most widely used chronology models, focusing in particular on the Neukum model 13 . We found that the updated model is consistent with a combination of an exponential decrease and a linear rate. The updated chronology gives older ages with respect to the Neukum model for most of the lunar history, with a maximum difference of 0.24 Gyr at 2.55 Gyr ago. Differences from other models are of comparable magnitude or greater. These results have important implications for the chronology and impact history of the inner Solar System.

Geologic maps of the Moon provide comprehensive information about the geologic strata,structural features,lithologies,and chronology of the lunar crustal surface,which reflect the evolution of lunar crust under igneous processes,catastrophic impacts,and volcanic activities[1].As syntheses of current knowledge on lunar geology and evolution history,lunar geologic maps are fundamen-tal resources in science research,exploration planning,and landing site selection.In the Moon Race era from the late 1950s to mid 1970s,huge amounts of data were obtained through a volley of robotic and crewed missions,in which the Apollo and Luna mis-sions set the greatest milestones by returning～382 kg lunar sam-ples in total.

The distribution range, time-varying characteristics, and sources of lunar water are still controversial. Here we show the Chang’E-5 in-situ spectral observations of lunar water under Earth’s magnetosphere shielding and relatively high temperatures. Our results show the hydroxyl contents of lunar soils in Chang’E-5 landing site are with a mean value of 28.5 ppm, which is on the weak end of lunar hydration features. This is consistent with the predictions from remote sensing and ground-based telescopic data. Laboratory analysis of the Chang’E-5 returned samples also provide critical clues to the possible sources of these hydroxyl contents. Much less agglutinate glass contents suggest a weak contribution of solar wind implantation. Besides, the apatite present in the samples can provide hydroxyl contents in the range of 0 to 179 ± 13 ppm, which shows compelling evidence that, the hydroxyl-containing apatite may be an important source for the excess hydroxyl observed at this young mare region.