The radiometric ages of the returned samples are the cornerstone of lunar cratering chronology models. However, all the previous samples were from the lunar nearside and the radiometric ages of those samples that can be associated with particular surfaces are <4.0 billion years. On 25 June 2024, Chang'e-6 successfully returned 1.935-kilogram samples from the lunar farside. The samples included local basalts with an age of 2807 ± 3 million years and the norites with an age of 4247 ± 5 million years likely corresponding to the age of the South Pole-Aitken basin. With these radiometric ages, we refined the lunar chronology function (CF) and verified that it is still consistent with a combination of an exponential decrease and a linear rate. We further derived the impacting rate and found it supports a smooth decay instead of abrupt changes of the impactor flux at early times. The refined lunar CF can be used to obtain more reliable ages for unsampled lunar areas and provide critical constraint for the lunar early impact history.

Abstract Impact-cratering is a ubiquitous geologic process on the Moon. The impact-induced mineralogical micro-structures in lunar sample can provide information about their formation conditions on the Moon. However, the interpretation of these micro-structures remains challenging due to the complex and variable nature of impact processes. In this study, a piece of impact ejecta was recognized in Chang’e-5 regolith and characterized using petrographic and geochemical techniques. Using the mineralogical texture (i.e., corona texture around olivine) in such impact ejecta, the formation conditions were constrained to T > 1300 °C, stress-free, and a cooling rate 12 °C/min. These conditions are different from those previously reported for impact-induced rocks on the Moon, which are typically buried under impact melt sheets and ejecta blankets. These results indicate that lunar impact ejecta exposed at the surface record high-temperature, rapid quenching conditions distinct from buried impact rocks. Graphical Abstract

The accretion of terrestrial planets involved violent collisions among planetesimals, but the mechanisms of volatile element loss during these impacts remain debated. Chondrites, the building blocks of planets, preserve a direct record of these processes. To investigate the behavior of volatiles during impacts, we conducted a paired study of sulfur (S) and copper (Cu) elemental abundances and isotope compositions in shock-melted and unmelted portions of three ordinary chondrites (Chelyabinsk LL5, Viñales L4, Tassédet 004 H5). Our results reveal that sulfur is highly mobile during shock metamorphism. Its migration mechanism transitions from sulfide melt injection at lower shock levels to sulfide decomposition and S2 vapor transport at higher intensities. The latter process leads to substantial S loss and pronounced heavy isotope enrichment in shock melt pockets (SMPs). In contrast, copper exhibits limited volatility, resulting in negligible Cu isotope fractionation under most shock conditions. Measurable Cu loss and heavy isotope enrichment were observed only in the most intensely shocked sample. Mass balance modeling indicates that these processes occurred under extreme shock conditions, and the observed isotope fractionation is best explained by vaporization in a diffusion-limited regime. Our findings demonstrate that impact-induced vapor loss is an effective mechanism for planetary sulfur depletion, whereas the Cu inventory of planetary bodies was likely governed by sulfide segregation during magmatic differentiation rather than evaporation during accretionary collisions.

Meteorite finds are commonly used to assess the chemical and isotopic compositions of their parent bodies. Among these, lithium (Li) isotopes in ordinary chondrites (OCs) have been applied to infer the Li abundance and isotopic characteristics of their parent bodies. However, Li is highly mobile in aqueous conditions and readily undergoes isotopic fractionation during fluid-mineral interactions. It remains uncertain whether Li isotopic compositions in meteorite finds reliably preserve their original parent-body signatures, particularly after prolonged terrestrial exposure. In this study, we investigated Li isotope behavior in Kumtag 015 (W3, L5) by conducting a series of leaching experiments. The untreated whole-rock sample yields a delta 7Li value of +6.1 parts per thousand, whereas all leachates exhibit heavier delta 7Li values, ranging from +8.4 parts per thousand to +14.8 parts per thousand, indicating the presence of weathering-related secondary components enriched in heavy Li isotopes. Combined with the petrographic observations and mass-balance results, these data suggest that the relatively heavy whole-rock delta 7Li of Kumtag 015 is mainly related to the addition of heavy-delta 7Li surficial fluids during terrestrial weathering, followed by the sequestration of Li into secondary minerals such as carbonates and Fe-(oxyhydr)oxides. This finding is consistent with prior work showing heavy delta 7Li in carbonates. We conclude that terrestrial alteration can substantially modify Li isotope compositions in meteorite finds, highlighting the need for caution when using such samples to trace pristine planetary Li inventories.

Secondary minerals on Mars, particularly iron oxides, record the oxidative evolution of the planet. However, the origin and timing of large-scale oxidation of the Martian surface remain poorly constrained. Here we investigate the aqueous alteration of fayalite-forsterite (Fa100-Fa0) olivine solid solutions under a 1-bar CO2 atmosphere at 45 °C. We show that Fe-rich olivine exhibits enhanced yet non-linear dissolution behavior relative to Mg-rich forsterite, and that weathering proceeds through two stages: an initial stage (0–3 days) characterized by rapid dissolution and cation release, followed by a prolonged stage (4–180 days) dominated by Fe(III) precipitation. Alteration products are primarily Fe-enriched, Mg-depleted amorphous silicate gels, consistent with precursors to phyllosilicate formation on Mars. Crystalline Fe(III) oxides (hematite and goethite) form exclusively in the most Fe-rich systems (Fa71 and Fa100), indicating that Fe(II) oxidation can occur through water-mediated redox pathways effectively even under anoxic CO2 atmosphere. However, the abundance of Fe oxides produced in our experiments is substantially lower than the 6–20 wt.% ferric phases observed on the Martian surface, suggesting that Fe-rich olivine weathering under CO2 alone cannot account for the global ferric inventory. Despite their limited abundance, these early-formed Fe(III) oxides may have acted as catalytic nuclei, facilitating subsequent oxidation processes involving other redox-active species. Our results suggest that the earliest ferric oxides on Mars could have formed locally within Fe-rich crustal terrains under CO2-dominated conditions, initiating spatially heterogeneous but progressively amplified oxidative evolution on early Mars.

Abstract China plans to launch its Tianwen‐3 Mars sample return mission in 2028. Within the designated candidate landing zone, this study characterizes a geologically and compositionally diverse region (26°N–30°N, 28°W–36°W) shaped by the interplay of fluvial, periglacial, tectonic, and volatile‐related processes. Through integrated geomorphological, mineralogical, and thermophysical analyses, we identify several key features, including widespread olivine exposures within crater floors, walls, and ejecta; conical landforms potentially associated with subsurface sediment mobilization, possibly involving mud‐volcanic processes; erosion‐resistant mesa units; and polygonal terrains consistent with contractional cracking associated with volatile loss. The spatial arrangement and stratigraphic relationships among coarse‐grained residual units, ridge systems, trough networks, and elevated mesas indicate a prolonged and multi‐stage geomorphic evolution involving resurfacing, structural deformation, and erosion. Crater size–frequency distribution measurements suggest that a major resurfacing event occurred during the Middle Amazonian, approximately 600–800 million years ago, representing one of the latest resurfacing phases in the region. Collectively, geomorphological, mineralogical, and thermophysical evidence indicates a history of volatile redistribution, structural modification, and subsurface material exposure relevant to understanding the geological evolution and subsurface habitability potential of northern Chryse Planitia. Given its geomorphic diversity, exposed stratigraphy, and evidence of subsurface processes, this region represents a scientifically valuable target for future exploration, including the Tianwen‐3 mission.

Abstract The delivery and evolution of carbonaceous materials to airless planetary bodies remain poorly constrained. This study characterized a porous, aggregated, carbon-rich dust particle (CE6-CDP) from Chang’e-6 lunar samples. CE6-CDP yielded a mean δ13CVPDB value of − 25.92 ± 3.62‰ and exhibited significant nitrogen enrichment. Nano-infrared spectroscopy further detected N–H, C = N, and C–H bonds, indicating that the carbonaceous material within CE6-CDP shows organic-like signatures. Graphitic carbon with tangled and concentric textures within CE6-CDP exhibited a comparable δ13CVPDB value (−27.31‰) but contained low nitrogen, suggesting possible graphitization of some organic precursors. The coexistence of organic-like carbonaceous material and graphitic carbon is consistent with dust ejection during an impact involving a larger carbon-rich projectile. This study indicates that extraterrestrial carbon may constitute an important lunar carbon reservoir and contribute to the dark surfaces of Mercury and Vesta. These findings provide new insights into carbon transport and evolution across airless planetary bodies.

The degassing of solar wind-related volatiles is thought to contribute to volatile cycling on the Moon. However, it remains uncertain which lunar minerals preferentially release them. Here, we report an unusual foamy texture found only on the surface of ilmenite crystals within a Chang'e-6 (CE-6) basalt clast. The distribution and chemical composition of this texture indicates that it results from in-situ melting of the ilmenite surface rather than from an impact-induced splash melt. Considering the evidence-including the long exposure time, presence of deep-seated planar defects, open vesicles, large spherical np-Fe0 particles, and a rutile-like mineral-the foamy texture is interpreted to result from the intense release of abundant solar wind-related volatiles (e.g., H/H2, He, and OH/H2O) by an impact-induced conductive heating event. Restriction of the foamy texture to the surface of ilmenite within the CE-6 basalt clast indicates that solar wind composition, especially for H-related volatiles, are released more intensely from ilmenite than from silicate minerals such as pyroxene and plagioclase. Our findings suggest that solar wind-related volatiles released from high-Ti mature regolith likely made a greater contribution to the lunar exosphere and the lunar surface volatiles, including polar deposits, relative to those from low-Ti immature regions. This has important implications for understanding volatile cycles and future in-situ resource utilization on the Moon.

Why is Earth, among the eight planets in our solar system, the only habitable one? Over the 4.6-billion-year evolution of the solar system, why did Mars and Venus evolve so differently? Where did life originate, and how will Earth evolve in the future? These questions are not only central to planetary science in the 21st century but are also deeply connected to humanity’s fundamental understanding of its own existence and planetary habitability. Addressing these grand scientific challenges demands a systematic, multidimensional research approach. In the temporal dimension, we need to trace the early formation and evolution of terrestrial planets; in the spatial dimension, we need to analyze the layered structure of planets and the coupling between these layers; from a comparative perspective, we also need to explore the atmospheric characteristics of exoplanets and the influence of their host stars on habitability. Supported by the Chinese Academy of Sciences’ Strategic Priority Research Program on “Formation, Evolution, and Habitability of Terrestrial Planets,” we have taken planetary habitability as the main research theme and conducted systematic, in-depth studies on terrestrial planets by integrating multiple approaches, including extraterrestrial sample analysis, deep-space exploration data processing, and numerical and experimental simulation. This paper comprehensively summarizes the significant advancements made by the project over the past five years. It covers topics ranging from the early processes and environmental evolution of terrestrial planets to open planetary systems linked to the external space environment, and from Earth’s Moon to exoplanets. Key achievements include the first confirmation of a solid inner core on Mars, revealing its core-mantle differentiation under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions, and the discovery that the youngest lunar basalts originated from a non-KREEP, volatile-poor mantle source region, challenging the long-held traditional hypothesis that “volatile-rich material drives late-stage volcanism”—a textbook-level achievement. While summarizing the latest research advances, this paper also looks toward future directions. Significantly improving the capability for multi-layered, multi-parameter detection of planets, especially global planetary survey capabilities, and vigorously developing related techniques and research methods, particularly the application of cutting-edge technologies such as quantum technology and artificial intelligence, will be the key to achieving further major breakthroughs in planetary science. By sharing these research findings and insights, we aim to inspire more young people to pursue careers in planetary science—a field full of opportunities and challenges—thereby promoting the sustainable development of planetary science in China and over the world.

X-ray thermally emitting isolated neutron stars (XINSs) are a rare population that provides insights into neutron star cooling, magnetic-field evolution, and Galactic demographics. Using more than two decades of observations from the European Space Agency's XMM-Newton Observatory, we searched the 4XMM-DR9 and 4XMM-DR12 catalogues for absorbed XINS candidates down to a flux of 10^-14 erg cm^-2 s^-1 in the 0.5–1 keV band. Candidates were selected based on soft X-ray spectra and the absence of catalogued optical, ultraviolet, or infrared counterparts. Follow-up observations with XMM-Newton and FAST were complemented by data from the SRG/eROSITA All-Sky Survey, Chandra, and optical surveys. Of ten sources analysed, five are compelling XINS candidates, one is the known XINS 4XMM J022141.5-735632, two are extragalactic contaminants, and two remain ambiguous because of limited photon statistics. The five candidates exhibit soft (kT∼80-100 eV), moderately absorbed, and stable X-ray emission consistent with distant XINSs. They are located primarily in the Galactic plane, with possible associations at distances of ∼1.8 and ∼6 kpc. Population-synthesis simulations predict 20±5 XINSs within the 4XMM-DR12 footprint, of which 6^+2_-3 exceed our flux threshold, consistent with the observed sample if additional candidates are confirmed. The model further predicts that ∼70

The mechanisms governing the lunar water cycle and hydrogen isotope (D/H) fractionation driven by solar wind implantation and micrometeorite impacts remain poorly understood. Here, using synergistic simulation experiments, we show that micrometeorite impacts not only enhance the formation of solar wind-derived water through impact-induced mineral damage, but also enable the formed solar wind-derived water to be partially retained within the impact melt. Micrometeorite impacts also induce significant hydrogen isotope fractionation, resulting in the preferential retention of isotopically lighter water within the melt, while leaving the residual water isotopically heavier in the region surrounding the impact area due to thermally driven escape. We estimate that H2O released from minerals can migrate across the surface and ultimately contribute 4.34 & times; 109 - 2.39 & times; 1010 kg of water ice to the polar regions within 105 years. This study elucidates the solar wind and micrometeorites impact-driven water cycle and D/H fractionation on the Moon - processes that might also occur on other airless bodies such as Mercury and asteroids, and provides crucial insights into the origin of water in the terrestrial planets.

The behavior of volatile elements during silicate evaporation and condensation is crucial for understanding planetary formation. The Hertz-Knudsen-Langmuir equation suggests that the species evaporating from silicates are theoretically the same as those condensing simultaneously. However, recent findings from Chang’E-5 (CE-5) impact glass beads have challenged this view, with the sodium (Na) and potassium (K) oxides from the glass beads evaporating and subsequently Na and K condensing as atomic species. Here, we report two Chang’E-6 (CE-6) impact glass beads of highland origin that exhibit similar geochemical features to the previously reported CE-5 mare basaltic beads. The convergence of evidence from the distinct compositional terranes of CE-5 and CE-6 demonstrates that the condensation of atomic Na and K vapor is a common process during lunar impact events, independent of the target rock composition. Thermodynamic calculations show that at temperatures exceeding 2000 K during evaporation, O2 dissociates into atomic O, which preferentially escapes from the rock-vapor produced by impact due to its lower atomic mass than Na or K under lunar low-gravity conditions. This produces an oxygen-depleted transient atmosphere that leads to the condensation of atomic Na and K, triggering a redox reaction that incorporates the alkali metals into the melt as their oxides. In contrast, Apollo volcanic glass beads formed at relatively lower temperatures (<1800 K) without O2 dissociation, so there was no atomic Na or K condensation. These results fundamentally redefine our understanding of volatile behavior during lunar impact events and provide a new framework for interpreting surface geochemical processes on airless bodies.

We present infrared (IR) spectroscopic and optical morphological analyses of four multipolar young planetary nebulae (PNe) located in the Galactic bulge (GB) to investigate their dust characteristics and complex multi-lobed structures. Hubble Space Telescope high-resolution images of the nebulae (H 1-8, H 1-43, K 5-4, and M 3-14) reveal that these objects have interlaced multi-lobed features, indicating that their formation process is complex. Spitzer IR spectroscopic measurements of three of the young PNe show that these nebulae have unidentified IR emission bands and broad silicate features, suggesting the existence of a mixed-chemistry dust environment around these objects; such an environment, if present, may be caused by the last thermal pulse of the final asymptotic giant branch phase or be related to the thick tori produced by the interactions of central binaries. To find a potential connection between the multi-lobed shapes and central stars (CSs) of these nebulae, we employed Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) monitoring to check whether the CSs of the objects exhibit photometric variations. Analysis of TESS observations of the four young PNe shows that the CS of H 1-43 exhibits a periodic photometric variation of 20.88 hr; no regular brightness variations are detected for the other three nebulae. To study and differentiate the multipolar nebulae in the Galactic disk (GD) and GB, a statistical analysis was performed on the properties of these nebulae. The binary fraction of multipolar PN CSs in the GD region is estimated to be 23-40%, which is significantly larger than the binary fraction of the PN CSs reported in other studies. This strongly supports the hypothesis that binary interactions play an important role in the formation of multipolar PNe. Analyses of the spectral energy distributions of the objects show that their IR luminosities, dust temperatures, and mean emission measures are higher than the averages for normal PNe, which may indicate that they are young.

Lunar regolith has undergone prolonged space weathering, primarily driven by solar wind irradiation and micrometeorite impacts, which has substantially altered the mineral’s surface properties. The extent of solar wind radiation damage on mineral surfaces varies, depending on differences in the mineral structure, composition, and exposure duration. Here, we investigated space weathering features of two FIB foils from two Chang’e-6 lunar grains, minerals including chromite, titanomagnetite, ilmenite, pyroxene, and merrillite. These minerals exhibited diverse responses to solar wind irradiation with an increasing resistance sequence: pyroxene < titanomagnetite < ilmenite < (chromite, merrillite). Through a comparative analysis of their damage characteristics, ilmenite generated a higher abundance of space weathering products (e.g., vesicles), suggesting it possesses superior resource utilization on the Moon. Furthermore, nanophase metallic iron (npFe0) formed in all iron-bearing minerals, with its particle size positively correlating with bulk iron content. In chromite, both the npFe0 particle size and vesicle increased with prolonged solar wind radiation exposure. This study enhances our understanding of space weathering in lunar minerals, providing insights relevant to the evolution of lunar regolith, while also establishing its significance for guiding the in situ utilization of lunar surface resources.

Studies of Chang'e-5 samples have indicated a high content of solar wind-derived water at middle latitudes on the lunar surface. However, the implantation-diffusion and retainment of solar wind-derived water at lunar daytime temperatures remains unclear, leaving the formation and preservation of solar wind-derived water in minerals poorly understood. Here, we conducted experiments on 1.5 keV deuterium (D) ions implanted into silicate minerals at 356 K to simulate the solar wind proton implantation at noon in the middle latitudes of the Moon. The results showed that OD formed and partial D reached several micrometers depth in the minerals after implantation, which was a result of radiation-enhanced diffusion. The diffusion coefficient was estimated to be 10(-11)-10(-12) cm(2) s(-1) and was affected by the implantation fluence, temperature, and mineral crystal structure. This study provides insights into the distribution of water on the lunar surface by investigating the formation and diffusion of solar wind-derived water preserved in different minerals at elevated temperatures.

Phosphate minerals enriched in rare-earth elements (REEs) represent one of the typical mineral phases on the Moon. Nevertheless, their space weathering behavior remains insufficiently understood. In this study, two types of REE-enriched phosphate minerals—changesite-(Y) and monazite—were identified in the Chang’e-6 lunar soil sample, which was collected from the Apollo Basin on the lunar far side, a region characterized by low REE abundance. Their potential formation mechanisms are postulated as follows: (1) they originated as exogenous materials delivered as impact ejecta from thorium-enriched source regions within the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin; (2) they are products of crystallization during the late-stage solidification of the lunar magma ocean. Furthermore, the two phosphate phases exhibit contrasting records of solar wind radiation damage. Abundant radiation damage tracks are observed in changesite-(Y), whereas no such tracks are present in coexisting monazite or apatite, reflecting differential thermal histories at the microscale. These findings contribute to a better understanding of material transport and mixing processes within the SPA basin, reveal microscale heterogeneity in space weathering, and have implications for future in situ resource utilization on the Moon.

Abstract The development of high-efficiency thermal insulation materials is crucial for terrestrial and space applications under extreme conditions. Synthetic aerogels, featuring porosities up to 99%, can reach the values of ~10 mW m−1 K−1 under vacuum. However, whether natural materials can achieve this performance remains an open question. Here, we report lunar agglutinates from the Chang’E-5 mission that exhibit thermal conductivities as low as ~8 mW m− 1 K− 1 under vacuum, surpassing most high-performance aerogel materials — at modest porosities of only 7–30%. Integrated structural characterizations and atomic-to-mesoscale simulations demonstrate that the space-weathering-forged multiscale voids and multiphase interfaces collaboratively suppress phonon transport within agglutinate particles, leading to their ultra-low thermal conductivities. These natural structures demonstrate a non-porosity-dominated thermal insulation mechanism. The findings redefine the microstructural design principles for super-insulating materials and provide a particle-scale explanation for the ultralow thermal conductivity of lunar regolith.

Lobate scarps are small thrust faults that record the recent contractional tectonic activity of the Moon, but their subtle optical expression and narrow width, compounded by highly variable illumination across lunar remote sensing imagery, make consistent large-area mapping difficult. To address these challenges, we propose MALS-Net, a multimodal attention-enhanced semantic segmentation network for automatic detection of lunar lobate scarps from high-resolution orbital imagery. MALS-Net employs LROC NAC digital orthophoto maps (DOMs) together with monocular depth data generated by Depth Anything V2, thereby combining optical texture with structural prior. The framework comprises two key parts: an attention-augmented encoder and a small-object-oriented decoder. In the encoder, a ResNet-50 backbone with atrous spatial pyramid pooling (ASPP) captures multiscale context while efficient channel attention (ECA) adaptively weights features during multimodal fusion. In the decoder, a spatial context awareness (SCA) module and an efficient spatial channel attention (ESCA) module jointly enhance small-scale scarps by strengthening global spatial context and local edge responses. In addition, a multilevel evaluation framework is further developed that includes pixel-level, object-level, and geometric (normalized centroid distance (NCD) and compactness similarity (CS)) metrics designed for lobate scarps. Experiments on a new dataset of 11,920 multimodal samples between 60°N and 60°S show that MALS-Net outperforms representative baselines, achieving a pixel-level F1 of 92.129%, with object-level F1, NCD, and CS of 69.409%, 1.066%, and 82.966%. Ablation studies demonstrate the complementary contributions of ECA, SCA, and ESCA, and show that fusing DOM with depth features is markedly more effective than any single modality or the combination of DOM and SLDEM. Finally, when deployed over the Chang’e-7 pre-selected landing area in the south polar region, which was entirely excluded from the training dataset, MALS-Net detects six candidate lobate scarps, demonstrating generalization capability and practical potential for global mapping.

Lunar regolith serves as a key archive recording the interactions between the Lunar surface materials and the space environment.The successive success of China's Chang'e-5 and Chang'e-6 missions has,for the first time,enabled the return of samples from both the young lunar mare unit on the lunar nearside and the ancient impact basin on the lunar farside.This provides new opportunities to systematically unravel the formation and evolution processes of lunar regolith.Based on the analytical results of samples returned by the Chang'e missions,this review focuses on the latest research progress in three directions including the lunar surface impact modification,redox processes,and solar wind-derived water.It reveals the material response mechanism and evolutionary law of lunar regolith under exogenic modification.The discovered impact metamorphic mineral association in lunar regolith samples provides key mineralogical evidence for revealing the complex impact-induced geological modification history of the Moon.The new discovery of the space weathering characteristics,including the proposition of multiple formation mechanisms for nanophase iron(thermal decomposition,disproportionation reaction),and the identification of oxidizing minerals like magnetite and hematite,expanded our understanding of the redox environment on the lunar surface.The solar wind-derived water is an important source of water on the lunar surface.Its preservation and evolution mechanisms have also been further elucidated.By comparing the evolutionary characteristics of returned samples from the lunar nearside and farside,we deeply discussed the spatial-temporal differences in the evolution patterns of lunar regolith from various perspectives,which are expected to provide theoretical support for future lunar exploration missions.

Impact craters are the most prevalent geomorphological features on the lunar surface, and analyzing their morphological parameters is essential for classification and understanding their formation mechanisms. However, traditional parameters such as diameter and depth, typically derived from remote sensing imagery or digital elevation models (DEMs), which often fail to intuitively represent the three-dimensional structure of craters or obtain other detailed parameters. Therefore, this study developed size-dependent point cloud extraction strategies and processing methods for impact craters based on the 20-m resolution DEM data from Chang'E-2. Using triangulated mesh techniques, we reconstructed the crater surfaces and generated intuitive 3-D visual models. To improve the interpolation accuracy in point cloud processing, we propose an integrated interpolation method that adaptively fuses multiple interpolation results. Cross-validation shows that this method achieves a root mean square error of 1.3575, outperforming nearest-neighbor (4.6457), and linear interpolation (2.4295). To enhance model realism, we selected 50 high-resolution NAC images from the LRO and used the stable diffusion model for automated texture generation. This was achieved via LoRA-based fine-tuning and structure-aware ControlNet guidance, producing textures similar to observed lunar features. Finally, based on the constructed 3-D models, this study computed the curvature of each point in the crater point clouds and visualized their spatial distributions. Furthermore, we analyzed the relationship between crater diameter and maximum curvature, identifying 0.025 as a key threshold: as crater diameter increases, the probability of exceeding this value rises significantly, indicating that larger craters tend to exhibit more complex surface structures. Our study establishes a 3-D crater model library of 8575 examples and offers valuable insights and references for future crater classification and other geological structures modeling.