The evolution of volatile esters leads to changes in wine aroma during aging. In this study, polyphenol effect on ester equilibrium in wines was investigated through three aging experiments. Kinetic parameters of esters were calculated in four red wines. Results showed that the reaction rate constant (kobsd) was mainly determined by the molar concentration ratio of alcohols or acids to the corresponding esters. Phenolic matrix was more likely to influence the activation energy (Ea). Higher contents of total polyphenol led to the increase of Ea, resulting in the reactions less prone to happen but more susceptible to temperature changes. Combined with the practical wine aging and exogenous polyphenol addition experiments, the impact of polyphenol composition was revealed. Flavanols with higher polymerization degrees were found more beneficial for ester preservation than monomer flavanols or anthocyanins. This work could provide theoretical guidance in enhancing fruity aroma in wines via modulating phenolic matrix.

In this work, the polysaccharide profile of different grapes and red wines in China was studied and the influences of two common winemaking techniques on the components of wine were analyzed. The soluble polysaccharide content in the skins of native grape species in China (non-Vitis vinifera grapes) was significantly higher than that of Vitis vinifera species, while the terroir effect on V. vinifera varieties was limited. The combination of the enzyme preparation and the addition of mannoproteins (MPs) at the beginning of alcoholic fermentation (MP1+E) could increase the contents of MPs and acid polysaccharides (APS) compared to the control wines. Meanwhile, better color characteristics and higher level of anthocyanin derivatives were observed. However, MP1+E treatment reduced the content of polysaccharides rich in arabinose and galactose (PRAGs) due to enzymatic hydrolysis. The study will provide useful information for winemakers to regulate the wine polysaccharide profile.

This study assessed the chemosensory characteristics of Chardonnay wines from the eastern foothills of the Ningxia Helan Mountain, China. Using Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) and Descriptive Analysis (DA), 29 wines were categorized into lively (QTX and XX sub-regions, marked by citrus and floral aroma) and implicit (YN sub-region, marked by truffle and kerosene aroma) aroma styles. GC-Quadrupole-MS and GC-Orbitrap-MS identified 191 volatile compounds. Subsequent OPLS-DA analysis underscored those volatile compounds, including 1-hexanol, 2-phenylethyl ester, butanedioic acid, diethyl ester, and phenylacetaldehyde, likely form the fundamental volatile framework of the distinct aroma styles. HPLC-QqQ-MS/MS analysis identified 26 non-volatile phenolic compounds. Wines from the YN region exhibited a notable yellowish hue, likely due to their higher flavanol content. This study offers insights into Chardonnay wines' chemistry and sensory traits, guiding vintners to optimize viticulture and oenology practices, and empowering consumers to select wines based on unique aromas and quality.

Micro‑oxygenation (MOX) is the technology providing a slow and continuous oxidation reaction in the whole winemaking process to improve wine quality. However, traditional methods of oxygen management struggle to achieve a precise control over oxygen at critical process points, failing to meet the personalized and diverse production demands of wine. In this paper, an overview of three application stages of MOX, and the detailed dosage and duration at each stage were summarized. In addition, the application prospect of the new MOX application facility in wine production was proposed. Compared to passive MOX, active MOX could allow a more precise control of oxygen. The innovation of MOX equipment based on active MOX technique will be an inspiring interest in the research of winemaking. The integration and development of precise MOX will achieve the targeted control of wine quality and the creation of distinctive characteristics of wine style.

In this study, aroma characteristics and odor-active compounds in Dornfelder wines from three main production regions of China were comprehensively investigated for the first time. The leading features of Chinese Dornfelder wines were black fruit, violet, acacia/lilac, red fruit, spice, dried plum, honey, and hay based on check-all-that-apply. Wines from the Northern Foothills of Tianshan Mountains and Eastern Foothills of Helan Mountains were dominated by floral and fruity aromas, while wines from the Jiaodong Peninsula were characterized by mushroom/earth, hay, and medicinal material notes. Aroma profiles of Dornfelder wines in three regions were successfully reconstructed with 61 volatiles determined by AEDA-GC-O/MS and OAV. Through aroma reconstitution, omission tests, and descriptive analysis, terpenoids could be regarded as varietal characteristic compounds directly contributing to floral perception in Dornfelder wines. Guaiacol, eugenol, and isoeugenol were further revealed to have a synergistic effect with linalool and geraniol on violet, acacia/lilac, spice, and black fruit.

The appeal of icewine is attributable to its distinct aroma characteristics, such as 'honey', 'caramel', and 'dried fruit', but little is known about the chemical basis of these aroma attributes. A set of icewines with different aroma intensities were selected by a panel of wine experts. Detailed volatile compound analyses and sensory descriptive analyses were performed on the selected icewines. Using partial least-squares regression, several lactones, esters, terpenes, furanones, and β-damascenone were positively correlated with 'honey', 'caramel', and 'dried fruit' aromas. Aroma reconstitution studies confirmed that terpenes could significantly enhance the 'honey' aroma, but weaken the 'caramel' aroma, while lactones and furanones could significantly enhance the 'caramel' and 'dried fruit' aromas. In addition, this study demonstrated that terpenes, lactones, and furanones interacted synergistically with each other to cause the sensory perception of the characteristic aromas of icewine.

Astringency is one of the most important organoleptic characteristics of red wines, and its intensity evaluation method has been the focus of research in recent years. An artificial saliva system was developed to establish an accurate and reliable evaluation method for the astringency intensity of dry red wines based on saliva precipitation index (SPI). To achieve this, five key protein families, which presented high reactivities and sensitivities in protein-tannin binding reactions, were selected from human whole saliva. The concentrations of the five proteins (proline-rich protein, α-amylase, lactoferrin, lysozyme, and albumin) and pH were optimized using response surface methodology based on the human salivary conditions to simulate the real salivary environment. The artificial saliva precipitation index method was applied to 60 commercial dry red wines and it exhibited a high correlation (CoefASPI = 0.94) with the sensory scores, indicating better performance than the traditional SPI method and other analytical approaches.

A smoky aroma was found in wines made from East Asian species that had not been treated with oak products or exposed to smoke. In this study, a combined method of sensory analysis and quantitation of aroma compounds was used to identify the chemical basis of this smoky aroma. Syringol, eugenol, 4-ethylguaiacol, and 4-ethylphenol were confirmed as the key odor-active compounds contributing to the varietal smoky notes in wines of East Asian species. The concentrations of these compounds showed significant variation between grape species. The highest levels of syringol were found in Vitis amurensis wines, with an average of 178.8 & mu;g/L. The average concentration of eugenol in V. davidii wines was 101.5 & mu;g/L, about 10 times higher than in other species. 4-Ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol were both abundant in the wines of the East Asian species. The results of the sensory interaction between the four compounds showed a complete addition effect for eugenol, a partial addition effect for syringol, and a hyper-addition effect for 4-ethylguaiacol and 4-ethylphenol on the smoky attribute.

Correlating aroma expression with volatile compounds has long been an ambition in researches of flavor chemistry. To propose a reliable methodology to depict wine aroma, 76 oak barrel-aged dry red wines were investigated through the combination of machine learning algorithm and multivariate analysis. Aromatic characteristic was evaluated by quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA), while non- or oak derived volatiles were detected by HS-SPME-GC-MS and targeted SPE-GC-QqQ-MS/MS, respectively. Results showed that variable importance for projection values (VIPs) from partial least-squares regression (PLSR) and mean decrease accuracy (MDA) from random forest were efficient parameters for feature selection. The correlating accuracy of the optimal PLSR model to predict intensities of different aroma characteristics through selected volatile compounds could achieve 0.754 to 0.943, representing potential application to manage wine aroma by chemical assay in winemaking. From the perspective of mathematical modeling in the real wine matrix, the network analysis between aroma characteristics and key volatile compounds indicated that the expression of oak aroma was not only directly contributed by volatiles derived from oak wood, but also influenced by ethyl esters, including ethyl acetate, ethyl butanoate, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl decanoate, and ethyl nonanoate.

开展不同烘烤度及产地的橡木桶陈酿干红葡萄酒的实验,采用液-液萃取结合气相色谱-质谱联用(LLE-GC-MS)法探究不同类型橡木桶桶储12个月及出桶后瓶储12个月期间的赤霞珠干红葡萄酒中27种橡木源香气物质的差异.结果表明,对于烘烤度而言,桶储12个月后,中度烘烤橡木桶陈酿葡萄酒中呋喃(3.53～21.37 mg/L)、酚醛(1.78～3.05 mg/L)和挥发性酚(321.47～568.03 μg/L)含量较高.橡木内酯则在轻度烘烤橡木桶陈酿酒中较高(256.56～1 284.49 μg/L).对于橡木产地差异而言,美国桶陈酿酒中顺式-橡木内酯、丁子香酚、愈创木酚和反式-异丁香酚含量更高,法国桶和斯洛伐克桶陈酿酒中反式-橡木内酯含量更高.出桶后继续瓶储期间,除糠醛、5-甲基糠醛和香草醛呈下降趋势,多数橡木源香气物质含量无明显变化.因此,美国桶陈酿能给葡萄酒带来更多的橡木香气,不同橡木桶对葡萄酒中橡木源香气物质的影响可以延续到瓶储阶段,其中烘烤度的影响比产地更持久.

该文通过调查农艺学性状及病虫害分析葡萄品种适应性,结合相应葡萄酒挥发性物质与感官分析(选择合适项目法和定量描述性分析法),探究碣石山产区主栽白色酿酒葡萄品种'霞多丽'、'维欧尼'、'胡桑'、'阿拉奈尔'和'小芒森'的酿酒特点.结果表明,5个品种农艺学性状表现良好,仅'胡桑'抗病性较差,受绿盲蝽侵害较重,需相应防治措施.'霞多丽'和'维欧尼'酯类物质的浓度较高,表现为柑橘、柠檬、菠萝、香蕉和核果香气.'胡桑'萜烯、降异戊二烯和一些酯类物质的浓度较高,表现为甜瓜、哈密瓜、苹果、梨、糖渍水果和花香.'阿拉奈尔'C6/C9类、萜烯、苯类和内酯类物质的浓度较高,表现为青苹果、植物和花香.'小芒森'高级醇、脂肪酸和果香硫醇类物质的浓度较高,表现为百香果、西柚、蜂蜜、坚果、矿物、动物皮毛、肉桂和煤油香气.根据《全球葡萄酒中国鉴评体系》,'小芒森'整体品质得分较高,在碣石山产区可酿造成品质优良的甜型葡萄酒.

The differences in chemical and sensory characteristics between Marselan and Cabernet Sauvignon in China were investigated with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (HPLC-QqQ-MS/MS), combined with color parameters and sensory data. The paired t-test results showed that terpenoids, higher alcohols, and aliphatic lactones were significantly different according to the grape variety. Meanwhile, terpenoids could be considered as marker aroma compounds to distinguish Marselan wines from Cabernet Sauvignon, which could explain the distinct floral note in Marselan wines. The mean concentrations of the mv-vsol, mv-vgol, mv-vcol, mvC-vgol, mv-v(e)cat, mvC-v(e)cat, mv-di(e)cat, and cafA were higher in Marselan wines than Cabernet Sauvignon wines, and these compounds might confer Marselan wines with a deeper color, more red hue, and higher tannin quality. The phenolic profiles of Marselan and Cabernet Sauvignon wines were influenced by the winemaking process, mitigating the varietal differences. As for sensory evaluation, the intensities of herbaceous, oak, and astringency of Cabernet Sauvignon were more pronounced than Marselan, whereas the Marselan wines were characterized by a high color intensity and more redness, together with floral, sweet, and roasted sweet potato attributes, and tannin roughness.

采用气相色谱-质谱联用法和感官分析排序法,研究橡木桶陈酿前添加葡萄籽单宁(200 mg/L)对陈酿12个月后'赤霞珠'和'马瑟兰'干红葡萄酒香气组分和感官特征的影响.结果表明:添加葡萄籽单宁对2个品种葡萄酒香气的影响各异.葡萄籽单宁添加促进了橡木桶陈酿期间'赤霞珠'葡萄酒中香草酸、香草醛、香草酸乙酯、糠醛、乙酰呋喃和糠醇等橡木来源香气物质的浸出,而抑制'马瑟兰'干红葡萄酒中糠醛、乙酰呋喃、糠醇、5-甲基糠醛和5-羟甲基糠醛等橡木来源香气物质的浸出.添加葡萄籽单宁后,'赤霞珠'葡萄酒的生青味和浆果香降低,烘烤味增强,'马瑟兰'葡萄酒的生青味和花香略有增强,对陈酿型干红葡萄酒的生产具有重要指导作用.

To elucidate the effects of the different terroir on wine aroma in six sub-regions of Eastern Foothills of Helan Mountain in Ningxia, a premium wine-producing region in China, 71 Cabernet Sauvignon wines were investigated by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), check-all-that-apply (CATA), and quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA). The bidirectional orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis (O2PLS-DA) results showed that the Cabernet Sauvignon dry red wines from Xixia (XX) and Yongning (YN) had similar volatile profiles due to their geographical proximity and were characterized by higher concentrations of esters, higher alcohols, and volatile phenols because the similar aromatic profiles were detected in their dry red wines. Shizuishan (SZS) and Hongsipu (HSP) wines showed clear differences compared to the wines of the other four sub-regions, being mainly characterized by relatively higher phenolic aldehydes and volatile phenols. The concentrations of methoxypyrazines and norisoprenoids varied mainly depending on the climate diversity of the sub-regions. The highest 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine (IBMP) concentration was presented in the Helan (HL) wines. The Qingtongxia (QTX) wines have the highest β-damascenone, which might be influenced by the fact that QTX has the lowest effective accumulated temperature and the highest sunshine duration among the five sub-regions. Esters including ethyl octanoate, ethyl decanoate, ethyl butanoate, ethyl hexanoate, and isoamyl acetate were the highest in HL. Additionally, the herbaceous, black berry, and red berry notes in HL and QTX were the most outstanding.

Pre-fermentative polyphenol supplementation in industrial scales (100-hL) and simulated fermentation (350 mL clarified juice) were conducted. Results showed that in practical winemaking, adding QCE (quercetin, caffeic acid and ellagic acid) increased acetate concentrations in wines and extra grape seed tannins (T) enhanced the effect of QCE supplementation. In simulated fermentation with clarified juice, the synergy effect of QCE and T was evidenced that ester formation was only promoted through mixed QCET supplementation. Besides, QCE supplementation benefited the formation of 4-vinylcatechol adducted malvidin-3-O-(acetyl/coumaroyl)-glucoside and decreased other anthocyanin derivatives derived from pyruvic acid and acetaldehyde, leading more pyruvic acid and acetaldehyde left in yeast to enhance the metabolic fluxes of esters. Findings manifested the connection between the formation of esters and anthocyanin derivatives during red wine alcoholic fermentation, which would be influenced by the phenolic matrix. This work could provide a perspective in winemaking industry for modulating aroma profile via polyphenol supplementation.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of modified carbonic maceration technique (MCM) on the chemical and sensory characteristics of 'Cabernet Sauvignon' wines at an industrial production scale. Wines made from MCM and cold maceration technique (COM, control) were analyzed chemically and sensorially. Wines made by MCM demonstrated higher L* and a* values but lower b* values, and higher anthocyanin concentrations, which indicated that MCM wines had a greater color intensity, more reddish and bluish hues compared to COM wines. MCM wines contained more flavonols but lower flavan-3-ols. MCM treatment reduced the concentration of C6 alcohols and some higher alcohols, and increased the concentration of esters, especially acetates. Moreover, sensory evaluation showed the MCM treatment increased the overall aroma intensity, due to the increase of black fruit and fresh fruit notes and the decrease of green note. In addition, MCM wines had lower astringency and persistence.

Regulation of Aroma and Color Characters in ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ Wines through ‘Coupage’ Technique LING Meng-qi, ZOU Wen-wen, WU Guang-feng, YANG Wei-ming, DUAN Chang-qing, SHI Ying (1.Center for Viticulture & Enology, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100083, China) (2.Chateau ZhihuiYuanshi Co. Ltd., Yinchuan 750026, China) Abstract: To avoid deficiencies in monovarietal wines and improve flavor quality by blending different wines with different proportion through the technique of wine blending after fermentation (‘coupage’), Cabernet Sauvignon wine was regarded as base wine and blended with Cabernet Franc, Marselan, and Petit Verdot wines with proportion of 10%, 20%, 30%, respectively. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (HPLC-QqQ-MS/MS) were used to detect flavor compounds, namely, volatile aroma compounds and phenolic compounds. Quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) and CIELAB model were conducted to evaluate the difference of wine sensory quality. The results showed it was not an efficient way to increase fruity aroma by merely blending wines with high level of esters. Only Cabernet Franc wine with proportion above 20% increased the concentration of acetates in blending wine samples after 6-month bottle aging (p<0.05). Marselan wine with proportion over 10% could promote flower attribute and reduce herbal notes by increasing concentration isoprenoids, and lower the yellow hue at the same time. Petit Verdot wine with proportion of 30% had great contribution to the improvement of phenolic composition, especially by increasing the concentration of flavanols (1.43 times), flavonols (1.27 times) and phenolic acids (4.68 times), which was beneficial for color stabilization. Therefore, it is practicable to regulate aroma and color

Sensory interactions exist between 3-alkyl-2-methoxypyrazines and various volatiles in wines. In this study, the binary blending of Cabernet Franc wines containing high levels of MPs and three monovarietal red wines with two proportions was conducted after fermentation. Volatiles were detected by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and wines were evaluated by quantitative descriptive analysis at three-month intervals during six-month bottle aging. Results showed blending wines exhibited lower intensity of ‘green pepper’, especially CFC samples blended by Cabernet Sauvignon wines with an even higher concentration of 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine (IBMP). Based on Pearson correlation analysis, acetates could promote the expression of ‘tropical fruity’ and suppress ‘green pepper’ caused by IBMP. Positive correlation was observed among ‘green pepper’, ‘herbaceous’, and ‘berry’. The concentration balance between IBMP and other volatiles associated with ‘green pepper’ and fruity notes was further investigated through sensory experiments in aroma reconstitution. Higher pleasant fruity perception was obtained with the concentration proportion of 1-hexanol (1000 μg/L), isoamyl acetate (550 μg/L), ethyl hexanoate (400 μg/L), and ethyl octanoate (900 μg/L) as in CFC samples. Blending wines with proper concentration of those volatiles would be efficient to weaken ‘green pepper’ and highlight fruity notes, which provided scientific theory on sensory modification of IBMP through blending technique.

Limited oxygenation and over-oxidation experiments were designed to compare the phenolic and chromatic characters of base wines Cabernet Franc (CF), Cabernet Sauvignon (CS), and their counterparts that blended with modifier wines Marselan (MA) and Petit Verdot (PV). In both limited oxygenation and over-oxidation conditions, all blend wines generally contained higher C*ab, a* and Red%, and lower hab, b* and Yellow% than their base wine counterparts, because MA contributed flavonols (copigments) and anthocyanins, and PV contributed flavanols (anthocyanin derived pigments precursors). Chromatic changes that can be perceived by human eye (ΔE*ab) in CF based blend wines were more obvious than that of CS based blend wines, which indicate that base wine with lower phenolic concentrations and weak phenolic profiles (CF) might be more prone to be chromatically modified than base wine with higher phenolic concentrations and distinct phenolic profiles (CS). Chemical influences of different blending strategies on anthocyanin derivatives' formations were depending on phenolic profiles of the modifier wines and base wines, and also on the oxygen exposure. The results suggest that the chromatic improvement of base wines could be realized by blending modifier wines under different oxygen exposures.

Bottle aging is the final stage before wines are drunk, and is considered as a maturation time when many chemical changes occur. To get a better understanding of the evolution of wines' flavor profile, the flavor compounds (phenolic and volatile compounds), dissolved oxygen (DO), and flavor characters (OAVs and chromatic parameters) of rosé and dry white wines bottled with different closures were determined after 18 months' bottle aging. The results showed the main phenolic change trends of rosé wines were decreasing while the trends of white wines were increasing, which could be the reason for their unique DO changing behaviors. Volatile compounds could be clustered into fluctuating, increasing, and decreasing groups using k-means algorithm. Most volatile compounds, especially some long-chain aliphatic acid esters (octanoates and decanoates), exhibited a lower decrease rate in rosé wines sealed with natural corks and white wines with screw caps. After 18 months of bottle aging, wines treated with natural corks and their alternatives could be distinguished into two groups based on flavor compounds via PLS-DA. As for flavor characters, the total intensity of aroma declined obviously compared with their initial counterparts. Rosé wines exhibit visual difference in color, whereas such a phenomenon was not observed in white wines.