Les politiques de gestion de sites naturels ont des effets directs sur les activités touristiques et des effets indirects ou induits sur les autres activités locales. La méthode de la dépendance, construite grâce aux apports théoriques de la base économique et des coûts de transaction, est ici appliquée pour estimer les effets d’une politique publique (ici des politiques paysagères). À partir d’enquêtes par questionnaire auprès d’hébergeurs touristiques situés sur le site de la Chaîne des Puys-Faille de Limagne, nous avons estimé la dépendance des hébergeurs vis-à-vis des politiques de gestion : plutôt forte à court terme (chiffre d’affaires, fréquentation) ou sur le plan géographique (localisation de l’activité) et faible à moyen et long termes (diversité de l’offre, capacité d’adaptation, évolution de l’activité) ; variable selon le type d’hébergement (plus marquée pour l’hébergement de plein air). L’influence moyenne sur l’emploi des 19 établissements enquêtés est de 0,25 équivalents temps pleins par établissement.

CONTEXT: Livestock farming systems have received particular attention in the news and scientific media. However, do these considerations ever come to a real debate? Nothing is less certain. There is much attention on the negative impacts of livestock farming on the environment, and it remains difficult to have a fruitful dialogue on the desirable developments of livestock farming areas. This is also true at a local scale, where antagonisms among stakeholders can be strong.OBJECTIVE: We present La Grange (R), a generic serious game that reveals trade-offs and synergies in livestock farming areas. Its aim is to promote horizontal knowledge and dialogue among stakeholders on locally-adapted transition for livestock farming. METHODS: After presenting the conceptual model underlying the game with the different game components and phases, we report the outputs of four case studies with groups of farmers or students in agriculture. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: We show that La Grange (R) fills a gap in the toolbox for understanding livestock farming, making it possible to integrate generic and local knowledge and incorporating its biotechnical, environmental, economic, and sociocultural dimensions. In each case study, La Grange (R) not only revealed trade-offs and synergies between these dimensions, but also allowed new cooperation and strategic roadmaps to be set up for a livestock farming area. Both farmers and students perceived the game as a less top-down way of learning. When played with citizens, two of them joined the steering committee on an experimental farm after the game session.SIGNIFICANCE: As a low-tech, easy-to-access game, La Grange (R) can be easily used by extension services and agricultural teachers. Outputs from the four case-studies makes it possible to classify La Grange (R) as a "Game for Change" due to its impact on supporting sustainability.

CONTEXTLivestock farming systems have received particular attention in the news and scientific media. However, it remains difficult to have a fruitful dialogue between stakeholders on the desirable developments of livestock farming areas. This is also true at the local scale, where antagonisms can be strong.OBJECTIVELa Grange® is a serious game that represents livestock farming areas as a socioecological system. This article illustrates its relevance for sharing knowledge about the issues of livestock farming with local stakeholders and in education.METHODSAfter presenting the conceptual model and the different phases of the game, we report the outputs of several game sessions with groups of farmers or students of agriculture. Finally, we analyse how using the game can reveal trade-offs and synergies and, in turn, facilitate dialogue on locally adapted transitions for livestock farming.RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSWe show that La Grange® fills a gap in the toolbox for understanding livestock farming, making it possible to integrate generic and local knowledge and incorporating its biotechnical, environmental, economic and sociocultural dimensions. As a low-tech, easy-to-access game, it can be easily mobilised by extension services and agricultural teachers.SIGNIFICANCELa Grange® is a serious game designed to represent the range of impacts and services that occur at multiple scales in livestock farming areas. Future evolutions and collaborations will allow adaptation to other agricultural systems, especially annual and perennial crops.

The evaluation of the governance of the implementation of the European LEADER approach was carried out in six case studies in France, Spain and Hungary using an analytical grid cross-referencing two complementary theoretical frameworks: the analysis of overages (i.e. the identification of the diverse effects of public policy) and learning phenomena. It was shown that the overages (especially institutional) of the LEADER approach were greater when the governance and management learning subsystems converged. Conversely, the overages remain more limited when the two systems diverge, which is often the case when the program is used as a tool by certain political or economic actors. Overall, these results underline some of the limitations of bottom-up and integrated programs such as LEADER, which are characterized by a relative non-linearity in their implementation.

The Onvar (National Organizations for Agricultural and Rural Development) represent very original collective structures. Their aim is to improve integrated sustainable development of territories. A grid from institutional economics is applied to an original empirical material (evaluation report and surveys) for assessing territorial added value. It is shown that Onvar’s local projects bring added value in terms of intersectoral coordination and partnerships between Onvar (with a still strong path of dependence for this last dimension). Conversely, coordination with other major stakeholders in agricultural and rural development (consular chambers, technical institutes) remains weak. The consideration of agroecology is also modest.

Purpose: Knowledge Sharing (KS) is seen as a promising framework for renewing advisory systems in agriculture, but its practical application remains an important area of research. In particular, it is important to increase the motivation of farmers to participate in decision-making. Game-based support seems to be applicable to a long-term process of KS. Approach: The authors spent one year developing a methodology to help identify a common vision among multiple stakeholders in a PDO area. This area of cheese production (Fourme de Montbrison) faces important difficulties with sustainability issues and a very low degree of farmer participation. The methodology is based on game learning and incorporates three phases and six steps and is centred on two serious games. Findings: Results present an analysis of the farmers' participation and the common vision for the future that the game-based methodology enabled us to identify. The games facilitated the farmers' implication in collective decision-making and their continued engagement afterwards. Practical implications: the article discusses the advantages of the game-based methodology, such as involving local knowledge of farmers at all stages and encouraging their long-term engagement in collective decision-making. Theoretical implications: the article complements the existing scientific literature on KS by emphasizing the importance of long-term perspectives in a game-based learning approach. From a socio-constructivist perspective, it also highlights the potential of game-based learning to motivate farmers in collective decision-making. Originality/value: This support methodology could be a source of inspiration for extension actors facing similar development problems and the revitalization of their role as facilitators.

L’article vise à préciser le rôle des filières équines (élevages, courses, équitations) dans le développement régional à partir d’un modèle d’impact économique hybride entre théorie de la base économique et théorie keynésienne. Celui-ci est appliqué dans deux départements français (l’Ain et l’Allier) réputés pour la diversité et l’attractivité de leurs filières équines. Outre un poids et des propensions à dépenser très différents dans l’économie locale (0,76 % des emplois basiques dans l’Allier et 0,18 % dans l’Ain), la part de la demande externe dans la demande totale pour chaque type de secteur est plus élevée dans le département spécialisé dans ce type d’activité (par exemple les centres équestres dans l’Ain). Les filières équines semblent à l’origine d’un effet « base de consommation » à partir de ressources territoriales (les courses dans l’Allier) ou d’une demande externe croissante (équitation dans l’Ain) en détournant une partie de la consommation externe à son profit. Classification JEL : R11, R15, R58, Q19, Z30

Agricultural employment, in sharp decline in Europe, is the subject of little recent scientific work, and few studies focus specifically on livestock farming. Labour and employment factors must be considered to respond appropriately to the livestock farming “crisis” in Europe and to assess the room to manoeuvre of public policies to adapt this sector to the diverse challenges facing it. We have conducted a review to assess the combined effects on ruminant livestock employment and famers' work at the European level. In the first section, employment in ruminant livestock farms is quantified and the main differences between livestock sectors and regions are identified. We have showed that in France, livestock activities mobilize 41% of the French agricultural workforce at the national level, but due to territorial diversity, there are significant variations across the country. In Europe, while all countries are affected by a reduction in the livestock workforce, employment trends also vary depending on the animal sector. In the second section, we analyse trends in farmers’ work that could explain the evolution of agricultural employment in terms of slowing or accelerating the reduction in the livestock workforce. Our results highlighted supply-driven factors and demand-driven factors tend to increase the number of livestock workers. Some structural and institutional changes play a greater role as both an accelerator and moderator of the decline in livestock workers. The third section focuses on the effects of livestock employment on other industries. We show that the indirect and induced effects of livestock farming vary according to activity sector. Dairy farms have higher induced effects, especially at the national level. The development of processing activities can be limited locally by the low appeal of most of the jobs. In the conclusion, we highlight four major issues concerning employment and work in the livestock sector at the European level.

The paper aims to clarify the role of equine sectors (breeding, race training, equestrian centers) in regional development. The economic impact model used is a hybrid between the economic or export base and Keynesian theory. It has been applied in two French districts (Ain and Allier) known for the diversity and attractiveness of their horse industry. While Allier has a percentage of basic jobs in equine sectors (0.76%), especially in horse raising across all sectors then in racehorses training, the relative role of the equine sector is much lower in Ain (0.18%) and closely related to equestrian centers and saddle horses breeders. The first wave of spending plays a predominant and very contrasting role between the two departments : it is significantly higher in the Ain (0.32) than in Allier (0.23). The weakness of the indirect and induced effects in Allier is explained both by the limited local supply of the race sector and the nature of basic jobs in the Allier (horse trainers participating in races on all France). In addition, the share of external demand in total demand for each segment of the sector is all the higher as the district concerned is "specialized" in this segment. For example, nearly 40 % of direct employments in equestrian centers is driven by external demand in Ain, while 90 % satisfy a local demand in Allier. The equine sectors thus seem to be at the origin of a "consumption base" effect from anchored territorial resources (races in Allier region) or from a growing external demand (Switzerland and the urban area of Lyon for the equestrian centers in Ain) by diverting some of the external consumption to their profit.

This paper presents a synthesis of the results of almost ten years of research on the relationships between quality products/services, environment and territories. The aim is to analyze different possible contributions of territorial resources to territorialized sustainable development by examining how the supply of quality products meets the demand. For this purpose, there are two main characteristics of this that have to be taken into account:

This paper presents the support system that was developed by the authors in collaboration with the actors (dairy farmers and processors) of the Fourme de Montbrison PDO cheese. The article illustrates the usefulness of Knowledge and Experiences Sharing (KES) in deconstructing worldviews, and as a central vehicle for elaborated support. We address the difficulty of overcoming ingrained patterns of thinking that hinder collaboration in a collective effort. The description of the support provided reviews the different steps taken to create a common strategy among the actors in order to collectively develop a shared strategy for the future. Finally, the article discusses the perspectives that this process presents in terms of support for agricultural collectives and its theoretical and epistemic implications.

SummaryEvaluation of the French Less Favoured Area (LFA) agricultural programme over the period 2007–2013 calls into question the cost‐efficiency of this multi‐objective programme. This article confirms the multiplicity of objectives assigned to this programme, namely to maintain a sustainable agriculture in mountainous areas through income support for farmers in these disadvantaged areas; and thus more indirectly, to enhance the attractiveness of these agricultural areas. The environmental assessment of farms in the FADN network showed that the French LFA programme did help to support the most environmentally friendly dairy and cattle farms in mountainous areas via support for the income levels of these livestock farms. However, the analysis also shows that the LFA criteria are not sufficiently specific to have the required impacts on grassland management practices that would lead to specific defined environmentally friendly practices and improvements. Overall, and in spite of its longstanding and multi‐objective nature, the French LFA programme has been effective both from an economic perspective in that it inspires confidence among economic agents; and also to some extent from a general environmental perspective by providing support for farms which hold most of the permanent grassland, and associated amenities.

Livestock is a major driver in most rural landscapes and economics, but it also polarises debate over its environmental impacts, animal welfare and human health. Conversely, the various services that livestock farming systems provide to society are often overlooked and have rarely been quantified. The aim of analysing bundles of services is to chart the coexistence and interactions between the various services and impacts provided by livestock farming, and to identify sets of ecosystem services (ES) that appear together repeatedly across sites and through time. We review three types of approaches that analyse associations among impacts and services from local to global scales: (i) detecting ES associations at system or landscape scale, (ii) identifying and mapping bundles of ES and impacts and (iii) exploring potential drivers using prospective scenarios. At a local scale, farming practices interact with landscape heterogeneity in a multi-scale process to shape grassland biodiversity and ES. Production and various ES provided by grasslands to farmers, such as soil fertility, biological regulations and erosion control, benefit to some extent from the functional diversity of grassland species, and length of pasture phase in the crop rotation. Mapping ES from the landscape up to the EU-wide scale reveals a frequent trade-off between livestock production on one side and regulating and cultural services on the other. Maps allow the identification of target areas with higher ecological value or greater sensitivity to risks. Using two key factors (livestock density and the proportion of permanent grassland within utilised agricultural area), we identified six types of European livestock production areas characterised by contrasted bundles of services and impacts. Livestock management also appeared to be a key driver of bundles of services in prospective scenarios. These scenarios simulate a breakaway from current production, legislation (e.g. the use of food waste to fatten pigs) and consumption trends (e.g. halving animal protein consumption across Europe). Overall, strategies that combine a reduction of inputs, of the use of crops from arable land to feed livestock, of food waste and of meat consumption deliver a more sustainable food future. Livestock as part of this sustainable future requires further enhancement, quantification and communication of the services provided by livestock farming to society, which calls for the following: (i) a better targeting of public support, (ii) more precise quantification of bundles of services and (iii) better information to consumers and assessment of their willingness to pay for these services.

The paper shows that the expected positive effects in terms of innovation under the LEADER programme are closely dependent on the structure of networks of actors and arrangements between them at the local level. A theoretical grid of local governance is used and applied in five Local Action Groups (LAGs) in France, Lithuania and Spain. To foster innovation with the LEADER programme, three conditions are important: the emergence of more shared decision‐making bodies, integration of civil society actors into strategic political thinking, and the need for strong local territorial engineering to serve innovation.

Les zones herbagères de moyenne et de haute montagne fournissent un bouquet de services équilibré qui comprend des services d’approvisionnement (produits de qualité et disposant d’une bonne image auprès des consommateurs), des services environnementaux et de vitalité territoriale. Afin d’expliciter les déterminants de cette diversité, quatre études de cas ont été retenues à des échelles géographiques différentes : AOP Cantal et Laguiole dans le Massif central, région de Franche-Comté, alpages suisses. Une même grille d’analyse a été appliquée à chacune de ces études de cas. Le contexte qui conduit à la situation actuelle est présenté dans une perspective historique, avant que soient analysés leurs principaux services d’approvisionnement, environnementaux et de vitalité territoriale. Chaque étude de cas est synthétisée par une formalisation inspirée d’une analyse en termes de système socio-écologique. Nous discutons par la suite des leviers permettant de mieux concilier les performances productives, environnementales et sociales de l’élevage dans ces territoires. Un levier biotechnique majeur est la recherche d’autonomie fourragère qui permet de réduire les coûts de production tout en bénéficiant à la qualité nutritionnelle des laits et des fromages. Il existe par ailleurs des liens forts entre la nature de la gouvernance des filières et le bouquet de services fournis. Une gouvernance territoriale de filières crée de la valeur en valorisant les ressources locales, et en régulant le système de production par des organisations dédiées ; elle bénéficie conjointement aux services de vitalité territoriale et de qualité de l’environnement. A l’inverse, une gouvernance sectorielle apparait moins favorable. Le développement de formes hybrides de gouvernance (par exemple alimentaire territoriale) constitue l’un des leviers importants.

Economic base (or export-base) theory (EBT) is often presented as a Keynesian-inspired theory that only accounts for demand-side factors. However, the recent integration of supply-side factors into economic base models (EBMs) can contribute to renewing applications of this type of model in regional economics. This paper proposes a literature review focused on new EBMs that explicitly take into account supply effects and includes both North American and European studies. It first explains why integrating supply-side factors is relevant for EBMs. Second, the paper shows how to integrate these supply-side factors into the various types of models, focusing on two production factors: land and its amenities and labor. Third, the paper discusses the conditions for integrating such supply-side factors into EBMs.

Dans quelle mesure le programme européen Leader contribue-t-il encore à répondre aux objectifs initiaux d’un développement local ascendant et innovant ? Nous proposons une méthode pluridisciplinaire, basée sur une analyse d’évaluation de l’efficacité des projets comme de leur gouvernance à partir d’une grille originale d’analyse de la valeur ajoutée territoriale. Celle-ci est structurée autour de quatre composantes : ancrage territorial, intersectorialité, coordinations entre acteurs et caractère transversal du projet de développement territorial. L’application de cette méthode aux projets Leader mis en œuvre dans le pays d’Aurillac met en exergue la valeur ajoutée la plus importante pour les projets relatifs à l’accueil de populations et d’entreprises. Par ailleurs, le couplage de cette analyse quantitative avec une analyse qualitative de science politique permet de tenir compte du contexte local et de pointer d’autres aspects freinant la performance de Leader (rigidité administrative, stratégies notabiliaires) ou l’améliorant (création d’un pôle d’accueil et d’appui). Classification JEL : Q18, H50, R58

L’élevage représente une activité majeure dans nombre de territoires ruraux européens. Au-delà des controverses sur les conséquences environnementales de l’élevage, et sur les conditions de vie et d’abattage des animaux, il rend différents services à la société qu’il convient de révéler, et si possible de quantifier. Le cadre conceptuel des bouquets de services permet de considérer la coexistence d’effets positifs et négatifs de l’élevage à un instant donné sur un territoire. L’augmentation d’un service impliquant en général la diminution d’autres, ce cadre permet d’identifier les compromis à considérer au sein des territoires. Aux échelles larges (de la petite région agricole à l’Europe), on constate souvent un antagonisme entre production et emploi d’une part, services environnementaux et culturels d’autre part. Les cartographies de services révèlent l’effet des systèmes dominants dans les territoires, mais ne prennent pas en compte la coexistence avec des systèmes de niche, dont les contributions positives sont largement masquées. Une analyse à des échelles plus fines (bassin versant, canton, exploitation) montre qu’il est possible de dépasser ces antagonismes en prenant en compte les temporalités, l’hétérogénéité spatiale, et les interactions techniques ou organisationnelles entre différents types de systèmes d’élevage (et de cultures) d’un même territoire. Des modélisations aux échelles larges permettent de simuler de manière prospective les conséquences du changement climatique et d’évolutions plus tranchées des modes de production et de consommation. L’alimentation humaine – au travers de la part des protéines d’origine animale – et l’alimentation animale – du fait de son impact sur l’usage des terres – ont un poids décisif dans ces scénarios. Nous concluons en proposant des pistes de recherches à approfondir afin de mieux valoriser la diversité des services fournis par l’élevage.

How does the European program LEADER created since 1991 contribute yet to answer to the initial objectives of a bottom-up, integrated and innovative development? The construction of an analytical framework of the territorial added value is used to assess the efficiency of LEADER. This grid is structured around four components of this public policy: its territorial anchorage, the degree of intersectorality, forms of coordination between actors and the sustainability of the projects. The implementation of this method to the LEADER projects in Auvergne (pays d'Aurillac) highlights the most important added value for projects related to the home of people and businesses. Moreover, the coupling of this quantitative analysis with a qualitative analysis of political science policy points to other aspects hindering the performance of LEADER (administrative rigidity) or improving it (creating a welcome and technical support center).