The transition towards sustainable biofuels requires innovative strategies to maximize the utilization of agroindustrial biomass. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to evaluate avocado stone biomass as a renewable substrate for producing glucose and bioethanol, and to characterize potential co-products from the pretreatment stream, including avocado phenolic compounds. It was found that the whole avocado stone and the seed contained 41.7% and 42.8% of starch, respectively, accounting for more than 78% of the glucans. Using microwave-diluted acid pretreatment and multi-response optimization, a direct conversion of ~90% of glucans to glucose was achieved from avocado stone biomass at 1% w/v sulfuric acid, 140 °C, and 5 min. It also enabled minimizing inhibitor presence and reducing energy requirements. Then, the glucose-rich hydrolyzate was efficiently fermented into bioethanol (~24 g/L in 12 h) using Saccharomyces cerevisiae, without needing detoxification or enzyme addition. Additionally, the process yielded a lignin-rich solid fraction with an enhanced higher heating value (about 1.4 times) compared to the original biomass and an extract with phenolic compounds like caffeoylquinic acids and hydroxytyrosol, which enhances the valorization potential of this underutilized biomass. The overall balance can be 240 kg/t of bioethanol, along with 2.5 kg/t of phenolic compounds and 376 kg/t of lignin-rich solid. Finally, this work exemplified, in a real-world scenario, how we can fully leverage these often-overlooked, non-edible sources of starch to achieve the green transition and circularity.

Developing lignocellulosic biomass fractionation approaches that valorize lignin besides the conventional polysaccharide conversion routes have been a growing interest in achieving full biomass cascade processing. Additionally, integrating and designing technologies that use environmentally friendly and recyclable solvents following green chemistry is required. Within this context, the present work aims at investigating the integration of pre-treatments, such as aqueous pre-extraction or dilute acid pre-treatment, with the fractionation of the olive tree pruning biomass (OTP) assisted by ternary eutectic solvent (ES) composed of cholinium chloride, p-toluenesulfonic acid and ethylene glycol (ChCl:pTSA:EG; 1:1:9). The impact of both technological integrations on lignin isolation yield and on lignin physicochemical, thermal and antioxidant properties were the major parameters under evaluation. Overall, the most efficient integration was accomplished with aqueous pre-extraction plus ternary ES treatment. Around 64.3 % and 36.6 % delignification were achieved with ES, when using solid fractions obtained from aqueous pre-extraction and dilute acid pre-treatment, respectively. The lignin isolated after aqueous pre-extraction and ES treatment showed a remarkable aliphatic OH content (5.72 mmol center dot g-1). Finally, the integration of these processes enabled cellulose enrichment of remaining solid fractions that were accessible to enzymes (80.1-90.3 % hydrolysis yield).

This study aims to design and evaluate the techno-economic feasibility of socially just and context-specific biohubs for producing marine biofuels based on olive residues with hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) in Spain, using existing infrastructures. The conceptual process and biohubs design are co-designed using a multi-actor approach, involving local stakeholders through participatory methods, with the help of a Capability-sensitive design. The material and energy balances (from Aspen Plus simulations) are used to evaluate the technical and economic performance (such as capital expenses, operational costs, and minimum fuel selling price) of biohub. 21 possible scenarios are investigated to understand the impact of design aspects (such as scale, distributed configuration, and co-processing) on the minimum fuel selling price (MFSP). The MFSP of the HTL biofuels varied by a factor of 0.6–3.1 compared to the conventional fossil-based fuels. Additionally, co-processing of HTL bio-crude at existing petroleum refineries reduces equipment costs by 16%. The study also recommends that the minimum scale of the HTL facilities should be between 588–882 dry tons per day (DTPD) of crude olive pomace processing capacity, to benefit from economies of scale. Overall, the investigation shows an economically feasible way to develop context-relevant olive residue-based biohubs for marine biofuel production with existing infrastructures in Spain, while ensuring social justice near biomass production sites. We argue this approach can be replicated in the other olive-producing regions in the Mediterranean and conclude that olive residues from the Mediterranean region have a huge potential to provide alternative advanced “drop-in” biofuels for the shipping sector.

Organic ultraviolet (UV) filters are included in sunscreens to shield the skin from harmful UV rays. Despite stringent regulatory measures, recent scientific evidence has raised concerns about their toxic effects on humans and marine ecosystems. In this study, a simple hydrothermal approach was proposed for the synthesis of a Zrmetal organic framework-based magnetic nanocomposite (UiO-66-NH2@Fe3O4), which was used as an adsorbent for magnetic solid-phase extraction of organic UV filters, followed by analysis using gas chromatographymass spectrometry. The UiO-66-NH2@Fe3O4 offers the advantages of large surface area, superparamagnetism, and outstanding adsorption performance for organic UV filters. Under optimised conditions, the proposed approach exhibited excellent linearity (R2 >= 0.9894) and low detection limits (0.05 - 0.5 mu g/kg). The method's applicability was demonstrated through the analysis of fish and seafood samples, achieving good recoveries ranging from 83 % to 107 % and relative standard deviations of <= 7.1 %. Additionally, the validated methodology was effectively used for the analysis of various fish and seafood samples obtained from local supermarkets in Andalucia, Spain. The most frequently found oragnic UV filters were 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone, 2ethylhexyl 4-methoxycinnamate, and octocrylene, with concentrations from 28 to 301 mu g/kg.

This study presents the development of iron oxide/activated hydrochar composites from brewer's spent grain (BSG) to remove 2-chlorophenol (2-CP) from water via adsorption and Fenton oxidation. Two synthesis methods were employed: (1) incipient wetness impregnation via hydrothermal carbonization (FeOHC) and (2) chemical coprecipitation of iron oxide onto the hydrochar surface (FeOHC-C). Characterization revealed mesoporous structures with surface areas ranging from 44 to 66 m² g⁻¹ and magnetite (Fe₃O₄) as the predominant iron oxide phase. Adsorption studies demonstrated equilibrium capacities of 24.63 mg g⁻¹ for FeOHC and 18.70 mg g⁻¹ for FeOHC-C, with adsorption kinetics best described by the Elovich model and equilibrium behavior fitting the Sips isotherm, suggesting a heterogeneous monolayer adsorption process. Thermodynamic analysis confirmed that adsorption was spontaneous and exothermic, primarily driven by physical interactions, including hydrogen bonding, π-π interactions, and electrostatic attraction. Fenton oxidation experiments revealed that 2-CP degradation was most efficient under acidic to neutral conditions (pH 3.0-6.0), diminishing drastically at alkaline conditions. The fact that good results were obtained at neutral pH demonstrates its practical applicability. Reusability tests confirmed the long-term stability of the materials, with FeOHC-C maintaining sustained catalytic performance over multiple cycles. These findings highlight the dual functionality of composites as efficient adsorbents and self-regenerating catalysts, offering a promising and scalable solution for the remediation of chlorinated organic pollutants in water.

This study explores a sustainable synthesis route for magnetic nanomaterials with potential applications in biotechnological fields. The objective was to develop a ferromagnetic nanomaterial (Fe3O4-NPs) capable of catalyzing the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the presence of H2O2. The biocidal activity of these nanoparticles was tested against four bacterial strains. Fe3O4-NPs were synthesized using a simple, reproducible method that ensured consistent morphology and size (125–175 nm). Comprehensive characterization was conducted using advanced techniques. To optimize the conditions for ROS generation, a 4-factor Box–Behnken design was employed and analyzed through response surface methodology, yielding the optimal parameters: pH 6, temperature 42 °C, and concentrations of 160 µg/mL for Fe3O4-NPs and 0.136 µg/mL for H2O2. Biocidal tests revealed a significant killing effect on Bacillus cereus, with up to a 60-fold reduction in the H2O2 concentration needed to achieve the same effect. Strong inhibition was also observed for other bacterial strains. The results demonstrate the effective biocidal activity of the Fe3O4-NPs/H2O2 combination. The magnetic properties of the nanoparticles facilitated their transport and accumulation within cells, further enhancing their biocidal effect. This study underscores the potential of Fe3O4-NPs in biomedicine, contributing to advancements in the fight against antibiotic resistance. This study highlights the potential of Fe3O4-NPs in biomedicine and provides interesting new insights, such as optimizing variables for synthesizing reactive oxygen species using response surface methodology. Additionally, the biocidal effect of the Fe3O4-NPs/H2O2 combination was analyzed using 12-h growth curves, which reinforced the results. These findings are intended to contribute to progress in the fight against antibiotic resistance.

The goal of this study is to explore the synthesis and potential antibacterial and wound healing properties of carbon quantum dots embedded silver nanoparticles (CQDs@AgNPs)-based nanocomposites, which demonstrate great promise for biomedical applications. A simple and eco-friendly one-step chemical reduction process was employed, with CQDs acting as both reducing and stabilizing agents. Comprehensive physiochemical characterization, including X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Zeta potential analysis, confirmed the successful formation of the CQDs@AgNPs nanocomposites. The synergistic integration of CQDs and AgNPs resulted in enhanced antimicrobial efficacy against both Gram-negative [Escherichia coli (E. coli), Klebsiella pneumonia (K. pneumonia), and Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii)] and Gram-positive [Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)], and the fungal species Candida albicans (C. albicans), as demonstrated through in vitro assays. The CQDs@AgNPs-based nanocomposites demonstrated a strong minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.117 mg/mL for E. coli, 3.75 mg/ mL for K. pneumoniae, A. baumannii, and S. aureus, and MIC of 15 mg/mL for C. albicans. The minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) results mirrored the MIC values, indicating that the nanocomposites have a bactericidal effect against E. coli, K. pneumoniae, and A. baumannii, while exhibiting a bacteriostatic effect against S. aureus and C. albicans. Importantly, the CQDs@AgNPs-based nanocomposites demonstrated excellent antioxidant activity toward DPPH, with a radical scavenging capacity of 63,90%. In vivo studies in a mouse model highlighted remarkable wound healing properties, showing faster re-epithelialization and reduced inflammation compared to untreated wounds and those treated with standalone CQDs, AgNPs, or Povidone iodine. The combination of broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and effective wound healing capabilities positions the CQDs@AgNPs-based nanocomposites as a promising candidate for the development of advanced antimicrobial wound healing agents. This study's findings underscore the versatility and efficacy of this eco-friendly, greensynthesized multifunctional CQDs@AgNPs-based nanocomposites.

Treatment of vine shoots with the OrganoCat method, using a mixture of oxalic acid (0.1 M) in water and 2-methyltetrahydrofuran (1:1) at 140 degrees C for three hours, allowed a separation of the lignocellulosic biomass into three fractions: an undissolved pulp, an aqueous solution and a solid obtained by evaporation of the organic phase. The resulting pulp was enriched in cellulose with greater crystallinity than the initial one due to the dissolution of the amorphous part, which facilitated enzymatic digestion and produced a significantly high glucose content, close to 70 g/L, and an excellent substrate for ethanol production, reaching levels of 35 g/L. Lignin, was recovered from the organic phase, and hemicellulose-derived sugars in the aqueous phase were converted into furfural (64 % yield from xylose) and ethanol (98 % yield from glucose). Overall, we demonstrate that the OrganoCat method allows an interesting fractionation of the shoots and also enables the full utilization of the obtained fractions that can be efficiently transformed into high-value renewable products such as bioethanol, furfural and high-purity lignin, highlighting the potential of the method as a promising pretreatment technique for the valorization of lignocellulosic biomass.

Biorefineries are pivotal in advancing sustainability, yet most studies remain confined to laboratory scales, lacking comprehensive industrial-level analyses. In this work, the laboratory experiments are scaled up to design and assess the techno-economic and environmental implications of a multiproduct biorefinery system producing antioxidant extracts, lignin, and bioethanol from exhausted olive pomace, a residual biomass from olive oil extraction. Using process simulation and life cycle assessment, five scenarios were evaluated, varying in electricity sources (national mix, solar, wind, or olive biomass) and the heat and cooling sources (fossil natural gas or synthetic natural gas from capture CO2 and electrolytic hydrogen), with one scenario incorporating a carbon capture and storage (CCS) system. The CCS scenario showed the highest overall costs, 2.5 times higher than the base scenario (27.74 vs 10.99 $/functional unit), primarily due to the additional infrastructure and energy-intensive processes associated with CO2 utilization and storage. Despite higher costs, it achieved even a negative carbon footprint (-1.05 kg CO2eq per functional unit cradle-to-gate) and reduced impacts on ecosystem quality, resources, and human health. However, specific impacts like human noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic effects (40% and 60%) and ecotoxicity (up 70%) worsened. Notwithstanding economic barriers and environmental challenges, which can be alleviated by selling carbon credits and tailored policies and strategic decisions, these findings underscore the potential of integrating CCS into biorefinery schemes as a promising pathway to enhance environmental sustainability.

In this work, the probe-ultrasound and microwave extraction of phenolic compounds from vine shoots was investigated using the response surface methodology. The total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity and the content of trans-resveratrol and trans-epsilon-viniferin of the extracts were optimised. This provided three strategies for extraction, considering the energy efficiency of both technologies during optimisation. Ultrasound extraction at a 62% amplitude, for 6 min, and with 59% ethanol (55 degrees C) yielded 60 mg/g of extract and a phenolic content of 11.0 mg/g (1.05 mg/g of trans-resveratrol and 1.13 mg/g of trans-epsilon-viniferin). Microwave extraction at 80 degrees C, for 4 min, and with 69% ethanol yielded a slightly lower extraction, but the resulting extract had a higher content of phenolic compounds (12.3 mg/g), including 1.32 mg/g of trans-resveratrol and 1.52 mg/g of trans-epsilon-viniferin. Nevertheless, the microwave extraction yield and the phenolic content can be increased to 103.6 mg/g and 20.3 mg/g, respectively, at 155 degrees C, for 3.5 min, and with 58% ethanol, maintaining the content of the studied stilbenoids (1.27 mg/g of trans-resveratrol and 1.48 mg/g of trans-epsilon-viniferin). In addition, a larger number of phenolic compounds were detected in the latter extract when it was analysed by mass spectrometry. Overall, the latter conditions yielded an extract with the best antioxidant properties although this implied a higher energy consumption, which should be considered in future extraction scaling.

Achieving carbon neutrality and addressing the need for ongoing carbon dioxide removal to meet the climate goal requires an urgent shift towards sustainable production and consumption practices. In this context, we turn our attention to the olive oil industry, a key food industry that strives towards more environmentally sustainable initiatives. Our study explores a novel approach that integrates bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) into olive oil production. Employing Life Cycle Assessment, we assess the potential for carbon -negative olive oil production and its broader environmental implications. Our findings demonstrate that producing carbon -negative virgin olive oil is possible by powering the olive mill processes with BECCS based on olive prunings generated at the agricultural stage (up to -0.32 kg CO 2 eq per 1-l bottle of virgin olive oil). However, collateral damages to acidification and eutrophication will also emerge, which can be mitigated through careful project planning tailored to local conditions. The path forward involves strategic investments, customized policies, collaboration between public and private sectors, and consumers' willingness to support carbon offset projects. Our work may contribute to unlocking the full potential of BECCS, offering a blueprint for other industries beyond the realm of olive oil production, ultimately catalyzing the realization of carbon -negative products.

The olive oil sector generates a high quantity of biomasses every year, especially in the Mediterranean region. Olive pomace is the main one, but depending on the extraction and subsequent processing, other derived biomass by-products are generated like pate, exhausted olive pomace, olive stone, and residual pulp. Their sustainable valorization is crucial. Therefore, this review first conceptualizes the current situation of the olive oil sector and describes these biomasses from a qualitative and quantitative point of view. Second, information on the bioactive compounds they present, the technologies used for their extraction, and examples of applications for their extracts is provided. Third, since the extraction of bioactive compounds will generate new residual biomasses, this review takes a step forward by integrating the extraction step in biorefinery cascading schemes. It also analyzes the benefits of this integration, the contribution to a circular (bio)economy, and the achievement of sustainable development goals. An update on olive pomace-derived biomasses as renewable resources for valorization applying cascading biorefinery schemes to obtain bioactive compounds along with bioenergy, biofuels, and/or chemicals is presented and discussed. Implementing biorefineries could represent a step towards a decarbonized, circular, and more sustainable (bio)economy. The benefits of this integration are evaluated. image

In this study, a fractionation and valorisation scheme for vine shoots is proposed for biofuel and lignin production. This agricultural waste was fractionated by acid/organosolv sequential pretreatment. In the first step, acid pretreatment was optimised at 150ºC and 1.2% H2SO4 to release hemicellulosic sugars, of which 76% could be recovered. This sugar stream was co-fermented by E. coli with an ethanol yield higher than 98% after detoxification with resins or NH4OH. The solid obtained under optimal acid pretreatment conditions was delignified by organosolv treatment, and a delignification rate of 43% was reached at 180ºC. This substrate with 83% enzymatic digestibility was bio-converted into ethanol by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation, with a yield of 76%. Additionally, lignin was recovered from the organosolv liquor, aiming for the full valorisation of the biomass, which showed a syringyl/guaiacyl ratio of 0.92 by nuclear magnetic resonance, complying with the data provided for Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and confirming the aromaticity of this fraction for further valorisation.

This study explores the integration of bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) into a biorefinery system that converts olive tree prunings into bioethanol and antioxidants. With a capacity to process 1,500 tons of prunings daily, the biorefinery yields an annual production of around 12,000 tons of antioxidants (purity > 60%) and 78,000 tons of bioethanol. Utilizing a holistic approach involving process simulations and life cycle assessment, our analysis covers technical, economic, and environmental dimensions across two scenarios differing in design and heating source: natural gas or a BECCS system using olive prunings. Our findings reveal the potential for BECCS to drastically reduce the carbon footprint, potentially achieving net-negative emissions (-84.37 kg CO2eq per 1.00 kg of bioethanol and 0.15 kg antioxidants produced). However, these environmental gains are counterbalanced by economic and environmental challenges, with investment and operating costs nearly doubling and leading to complex environmental trade-offs related to eutrophication (+75%), increased water consumption (+45%), and expanded land use (+80%). Nevertheless, the premium nature of carbon-negative products, coupled with growing awareness and supportive policy frameworks, may overcome these economic barriers. This study highlights the importance of holistic evaluation when integrating CCS into biorefineries facilitating informed decision-making to address unintended adverse effects and promoting sustainability.

Antibiotic residues have become a global environmental concern, as these emerging contaminants are frequently detected in water bodies at concentrations exceeding ecotoxicity thresholds, posing risks to aquatic ecosystems and water quality. This study extensively evaluated the efficacy of glutamic acid-modified graphene oxide (GO@Glu) nanocomposites, synthesized via amidation, for the removal of sulfanilamide (SA) residues. The GO@Glu nanocomposites were characterized using a range of techniques, including X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared analysis (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and UV-visible (UV-vis), and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET). Batch experiments were conducted to assess the effects of adsorption time, initial SA concentration, GO@Glu dosage, solution pH, and temperature. The results demonstrated rapid adsorption kinetics and high adsorption capacities, exceeding 186.01 mg g(-1) for SA at a low GO@Glu dosage (10 mg). The adsorption process was found to be homogeneous and dominated by physisorption. Further analysis indicated that the adsorption was endothermic and enthalpy-driven, with the GO@Glu nanocomposites exhibiting excellent recyclability. The adsorption mechanism was further investigated through thermodynamic studies, adsorption kinetics, isotherm modeling, and FTIR analysis of the GO@Glu sorbent before and after SA adsorption. Theoretical studies, including density functionl theory (DFT), molecular dynamics simulations (MDS), and quantum theory of atoms in molecules (QTAIM) analysis, revealed stronger interaction energies for GO@Glu compared to unmodified GO, which could be attributed to enhanced van der Waals and hydrophobic interactions between the nanocomposite's hydrophobic chains and SA molecules. Additionally, real water samples spiked with SA residues confirmed the efficient removal of SA using GO@Glu. Thus, GO@Glu nanocomposites show great potential as a promising candidate for the effective treatment of water contaminated with SA and related pharmaceutical residues.

Recent research has focused on the development of environmentally sustainable materials for replacing conventional Portland cement. Alkali-activated cements, derived from aluminosilicate-rich precursors and an alkaline activator, have been a key area of interest. However, the properties of these materials vary with different precursors, leading to issues like shrinkage and flexural strength deficiencies. To address these challenges, scientists have explored the reinforcement of alkali-activated materials through the incorporation of fibres, both synthetic and natural. This study involved a comparative analysis of various fibres, including synthetic options such as polypropylene and glass fibres, as well as natural fibres like sisal, cellulose, and olive pruning fibres, with some subjected to specific treatments. A consistent 1% wt. fibre content was maintained, as determined optimal in prior research. The matrix was formed using electric arc furnace slag (EAFS) and biomass bottom ash (BBA) as raw materials, while an activator solution of KOH and K2SiO3 was used. Mechanical, physical, and thermal properties were evaluated. The results demonstrated that natural fibres improved flexural strength up to 20% and increased the ductility of the matrix, but the addition of fibres negatively affected physical and thermal properties. Compression strength had different behaviour, improving values in the case of use olive pruning fibres treated by K2SiO3 solution or cellulose commercial fibres, up to 9 and 15%. This research highlights the potential of natural fibres to enhance specific properties of alkali-activated materials.

This research study evaluates the techno-economic and environmental performance of an olive leaves based biorefinery to produce antioxidants, bioethanol, and organosolv lignin. The biorefinery comprises processes such as organosolv extraction, organosolv pretreatment and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation, which were simulated in Aspen Plus v9.0. Experimental data were used to simulate the process, assuming a linear up-scaling. The techno-economic evaluation was carried out considering financial indicators such as net present value (NPV) and internal rate of return (IRR). The environmental assessment was done applying the life cycle assessment methodology. The results shows that 100g olive leaves can produce 16.58g antioxidant extract, 11.12g organosolv lignin, and 2.85g bioethanol. The proposed biorefinery was feasible at a processing scale of 30,000 t/y with a NPV of 47.9 million USD and an internal rate of return of 27.8%. The proposed biorefinery can be implemented in Jaén (Andalusia-Spain) based on the high amount of olive leaves produced in this region. Stillages are the most polluting waste stream of the process. The carbon footprint of the biorefinery was 1.13 kgCO2-eq/kg olive leaves. The application of the biorefinery concept revealed that olive leaves could be transformed into value-added products from a techno-economic and environmental perspective.

In the olive oil industry, a pit fraction is collected from olive pomace and split into a clean pit fraction and a residual olive skin-rich fraction, which does not an industrial application. Therefore, in this work, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) was applied to obtain high-value triterpene acids (maslinic acid and oleanolic acid) from this biomass using the renewable solvent ethanol. The response surface methodology was used to gain a deeper understanding of how the solvent (ethanol–water, 50–100% v/v), time (4–30 min), and temperature (50–120 °C) affect the extraction performance, as well as the energy required for the process. The effect of milling was also studied and the solid-to-liquid ratio was also evaluated, and overall, a good compromise was found at 10% (w/v) using the raw sample (unmilled biomass). The optimised conditions were applied to residual olive skin sourced from various industries, yielding up to 5.1 g/100 g and 2.2 g/100 g dry biomass for maslinic acid and oleanolic acid, respectively. In conclusion, the residual olive skin is a promising natural source of these triterpene acids, which can be extracted using MAE, releasing extracted solids rich in polymeric carbohydrates and lignin that can be valorised under a holistic biorefinery process.

Ferrous slag: electric arc furnace slag (EAFS) and ladle furnace slag (LFS); and non-ferrous slag: copper slag (CS) and silicon-manganese slag (SiMnS) have been used as precursors for alkali activated cements (AACs). The objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of the silica modulus (Ms = SiO2/K2O) (0.5-1.8) of the potassium silicate/potassium hydroxide solution on the microstructure and technological properties of AACs using individual slags. The results obtained indicate that under the activation conditions used, CS and EAFS are more reactive slags, giving rise to AACs with optimum flexural and compressive strengths of 7.5 and 51.5 MPa and 5.7 and 30.5 MPa for a Ms = 1.4, respectively. While the SiMnS and LFS are less reactive resulting in AACs with flexural and compressive strengths of 3.2 and 11.6 MPa at Ms = 1.4 for SiMnS and 1.1 MPa and 4.6 MPa at Ms = 0.9 for LFS. In all AACs, the development of the alkaline activation reaction is confirmed due to the presence of gel, of different nature and quantity depending on the precursor used. The lower mechanical properties of the AACs using SiMnS and LFS as precursor may also be due to the presence of microcracks. Therefore, this study confirms that ferrous and non-ferrous slags can be used as precursors of AACs, with the type of precursor and the modulus of the activating solution influencing mechanical properties. AACs using CS and EAFS can be used in structural applications, while those using SiMnS and LFS can be used in non-structural applications in civil engineering.