The deterioration of monument or building stone materials is mostly due to the growth of black crusts that cause blackening and disaggregation of the exposed surface. This study reports on new oxygen (δ17O, δ18O and Δ17O) and sulphur (δ33S, δ34S, δ36S, Δ33S and Δ36S) isotopic analyses of black crust sulphates formed on building stones in Sicily (Southern Italy). The measurements are used to identify the possible influence of volcanic emissions on black crust formation. Black crusts were mostly sampled on carbonate stone substrate in different locations subject to various sulphur emission sources (marine, anthropogenic and volcanic). Unlike atmospheric sulphate aerosols that mostly exhibit Δ33S > 0‰, here most of the analysed black crust sulphates show negative Δ33S. This confirms that black crust sulphates do not result from deposition of sulphate aerosols or of rainwater but mostly from the oxidation of dry deposited SO2 onto the stone substrate. The δ34S and δ18O values indicate that most of black crust sulphate originates from anthropogenic activities. Δ17O values are found to be related to the sampling location. The largest 17O-anomalies (up to ~4‰) are measured in black crust from areas highly influenced by volcanic emissions, which demonstrates the strong involvement of ozone in the formation of black crusts in volcanically influenced environments.

In semiarid areas, the climate is characterized by strong spatiotemporal variability while the meteorological ground network is often very sparse. In this context, the spatial distribution of meteorological variables is thus a real issue for watershed hydrology, agronomy and the study of surface–atmosphere retroaction in these regions. The aim of this study is twofold: (1) to evaluate and to adapt a reanalysis system “Système d’Analyse Fournissant des Renseignements Adaptés à la Nivologie” (SAFRAN) to map the meteorological variables on the Tensift catchment (Morocco) between 2004 and 2014; (2) to project temperature and precipitation for the 2041–2060 horizon at high-resolution based on the Euro-CORDEX database at 12 km resolution (using two Representative Concentration Pathway -RCPs- scenarios and four Regional Climate Models), on the SAFRAN reanalysis and on a network of meteorological stations. SAFRAN was assessed: (1) based on leave-one-out for a station located in the plain and another in the mountains; (2) by comparison to another re-analysis system named the Meteorological Distribution System for High-Resolution Terrestrial Modeling (MicroMet); (3) by comparison to in situ measurements of snowfall at one station and to the daily Snow Cover Area derived from the Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) product at the catchment scale. The evaluation of the SAFRAN reanalysis showed that an irregular grid up to 1 km resolution is better for reproducing meteorological variables than the regular version of SAFRAN at 8 km, especially in mountains. The projection of the SAFRAN forcing is conducted in three steps corresponding to the three subsections below: (1) disaggregation of the Euro-CORDEX climate scenarios using the Q–Q approach based on stations data; (2) computation of the spatialized delta-change between historical and future Euro-CORDEX runs after Q–Q correction; (3) futurization of SAFRAN using the spatialized delta change values. The mountainous area is expected to face a higher increase in air temperature than the plains, reaching +2.5 °C for RCP8.5 and +1.71 °C for RCP4.5 over 2041–2060. This warming will be accompanied by a marked decrease in precipitation (−16% for RCP8.5). These present and future spatialized data sets should be useful for impact studies, in particular those focusing on water resources.

In the south Mediterranean catchments, most of the available water resources are used to produce hydro-electric energy, for drinking water as well as for irrigated agriculture located downstream in the surrounding plains. This water Tower role is today threatened by the increase in water needs relative to the growth of the population and its standard of living, by the intensification of irrigated agriculture and by climate change. The south Mediterranean region is now well known as a “hot-spot” for the latter and there is reasonable evidence showing that mountainous region should face enhanced warming compared to the surrounding plains in the future. In this context, the development of a high-resolution futuristic climate forcing on the Tensift catchments. Based on the high-resolution SAFRAN reanalysis developed in the study presented above. is very important for the study of the climate, with a trend for the 2041-2060 horizon. For this purpose, we used future climate scenarios provided by the Euro-CORDEX program evaluated over the region. To achieve this objective, two RCP runs at 12 km resolution are downscaled using the quantile-quantile approach based on temperature and precipitation acquired at the Marrakech station in the plain and at the Oukaimeden station located at an altitude of 2687m in the High Atlas. It is shown that higher warming is expected on the mountainous region than in the plain station (2.8°C versus 2.3°C for the maximum temperature and 2.8° versus 2° for the minimum temperature; scenario RCP8.5 for 2041-2060). The higher warming on the minimum temperature may drastically impact the snow/rain partition in the high Atlas. Based on these disaggregated climate scenarios, future spatialized forcing are built from the correction functions obtained at the two above-mentioned plain and mountain stations and the SAFRAN re-analysis. The mountainous area is expected to face a higher increase of air temperature than in the plain, reaching +2.5°C for RCP8.5 and +1.71°C for RCP4.5 over 2041-2060. This warming will be accompanied by a marked decrease in precipitation (-16% for RCP8.5). this future spatialized data set is to be used within impact studies, in particular concerning water resources.

L'observatoire hydrologique du Réal Collobrier situé dans le sud-est de la France à proximité du littoral méditerranéen (massif des Maures) et géré par Irstea depuis 1966, constitue un site de référence en hydro-climatologie régionale. En raison du réseau dense de mesures des pluies et des débits, ce site offre une occasion unique d'évaluer les tendances hydrométéorologiques méditerranéennes à long terme. La végétation est composée de forêts principalement calcifuges sur des sols cristallins (maquis de bruyère, chêne-liège, pin maritime et châtaignier). L'influence humaine directe a été négligeable au cours des 50 dernières années. L'occupation du sol est demeurée presque inchangée, à l'exception notable d'un incendie de forêt en 1990 qui a touché un petit sous-bassin hydrographique. Par conséquent, les changements dans la réponse hydrologique des bassins versants sont causés par des changements dans les conditions climatiques et/ou physiques. Cette étude examine les changements sur la période d'observation de 50 ans, à l'aide de séries de précipitations et de débits. L'analyse utilise plusieurs indices climatiques décrivant des modes de variabilité distincts, à des échelles de temps interannuelles et saisonnières. Des indices hydrologiques décrivant les épisodes de sécheresse, en particulier en termes de durée et de sévérité sont également utilisés. Les tendances sont évaluées à l'aide du test statistique de Mann-Kendall. L'analyse montre qu'il existe une tendance marquée à la diminution des ressources en eau du bassin versant en réponse aux tendances climatiques, avec une augmentation de la sévérité et de la durée de la sécheresse. Mais les changements sont variables d'un sous-bassin à l'autre en fonction de leur propre fonctionnement hydrologique.

The Real Collobrier hydrological observatory in southeastern France close to the Mediterranean coast, managed by Irstea since 1966, constitutes a benchmark site for regional hydro-climatology. Because of the dense network of stream gauges and raingauges available, this site provides a unique opportunity to evaluate long term hydro-meteorological Mediterranean trends. The vegetation is composed of forest mainly calcified on crystalline soils (maquis of heath, cork-oak, maritime pine and chestnut). Direct human influence has been negligible over the past 50 years. The land use/land cover has remained almost unchanged, with the notable exception of a wildfire in 1990 that impacted a small sub-catchment. Therefore changes in the hydrological response of the catchments are caused by changes in climate and/or physical conditions. This study investigates changes in observational data using up to 50-year daily series of precipitation and streamflow. The analysis used several climate indices describing distinct modes of variability, at inter-annual and seasonal time scales. Trends were assessed by the Mann-Kendall test. The analysis also used hydrological indices describing drought events based on daily data for a description of low flows, in particular in terms of timing and severity. The analysis shows that there is a marked tendency towards a decrease in the water resources of the Real Collobrier catchment in response to climate trends, with a increase in drought severity and duration. But the changes are variable among the sub-catchments according to their own hydrological functioning.

This paper describes the impact of the various changes made to the Safran–Isba–Modcou (SIM) hydrometeorological system and demonstrates that the new version of the model performs better than the previous one by making comparisons with observations of daily river flows and snow depths. SIM was developed and put into operational service at Météo-France in the early 2000s. The SIM application is dedicated to the monitoring of water resources and can therefore help in drought monitoring or flood risk forecasting on French territory. This complex system combines three models: SAFRAN, which analyses meteorological variables close to the surface, the ISBA land surface model, which aims to calculate surface fluxes at the interface with the atmosphere and ground variables, and finally MODCOU, a hydrogeological model which calculates river flows and changes in groundwater levels. The SIM model has been improved first by reducing the infrared radiation bias of SAFRAN and then by using the more advanced ISBA multi-layer surface diffusion scheme to have a more physical representation of surface and ground processes. In addition, more accurate and recent databases of vegetation, soil texture, and orography were used. Finally, in mountainous areas, a sub-grid orography representation using elevation bands was adopted, as was the possibility of adding a reservoir to represent the effect of aquifers in mountainous areas. The numerical simulations carried out with the SIM model covered the period from 1958 to 2018, thereby providing an extensive historical analysis of the water resources over France.

The Réal Collobrier hydrological observatory in south-eastern France, managed by Irstea since 1966, constitutes a benchmark site for regional hydro-climatology. Because of the dense network of stream gauges and rain gauges available, this site provides a unique opportunity to evaluate long-term hydro-meteorological Mediterranean trends. The main catchment (70 km2) and its sub-catchments are located in the Massif des Maures of south-eastern France, close to the Mediterranean coast. The vegetation is composed of forest mainly calcified on crystalline soils (maquis of heath, cork-oak, maritime pine and chestnut). Direct human influence has been negligible over the past 50 years. The land use and land cover has remained almost unchanged, with the notable exception of a wildfire in 1990 that impacted a small sub-catchment. Therefore changes in the hydrological response of the catchments are caused by changes in climate and/or physical conditions. This study investigates changes in observational data using up to 50-year daily series of precipitation and streamflow. The analysis used several climate indices describing distinct modes of variability, at inter-annual and seasonal timescales. Trends were assessed by the Mann–Kendall method. The analysis also used hydrological indices describing drought events based on daily data for a description of low flows, in particular in terms of timing and severity. The analysis shows that there is a marked tendency towards a decrease in the water resources of the Réal Collobrier catchment in response to climate trends, with a consistent increase in drought severity and duration. But the changes are variable among the sub-catchments.

The SWOT (Surface Water and Ocean Topography) mission, to be launched in 2021, will provide water surface elevations, slopes, and river width measurements for rivers wider than 100 m. In this study, synthetic SWOT data are assimilated in a regional hydrometeorological model in order to improve the dynamics of continental waters over the Garonne catchment, one of the major French catchments. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate that the sequential assimilation of SWOT-like river depths allows the correction of river bed roughness coefficients and thus simulated river depths. An extended Kalman filter is implemented and the data assimilation strategy was applied to four experiments of gradually increasing complexity regarding observation and model error over the 1995–2000 period. With respect to a “true” river state, assimilating river depths allows the proper retrieval of constant and spatially distributed roughness coefficients with a root mean square error of 1 m1/3 s−1, and the estimation of associated river depths. It was also shown that river depth differences can be assimilated, resulting in a higher root mean square error for roughness coefficients with respect to the true river state. Finally, the last experiment shows how one can take into account more realistic sources of SWOT error measurements, in particular the importance of the estimation of the tropospheric water content in the process.

Study Region: Garonne Basin, France. Study Focus: This study analyses water mass variations for the whole Garonne basin (50,000 km(2) drainage area). To do so, Total Water Storage Anomalies (TWSA) from seven global solutions based on the Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite mission measurements ((similar to)300 km spatial resolution) are inter-compared with TWSA from two hydrological models, SAFRAN-ISBA-MODCOU (SIM) and Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), between January 2003 and December 2010. New Hydrological Insights for the Region: Despite the small size of the Garonne basin compared to GRACE spatial resolution, good agreement between GRACE solutions and hydrological model TWSA has been found (maximum correlation coefficient (similar to)0.9 and Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency, NSE, (similar to)0.7). These datasets showed that TWSA in the Garonne basin is mainly due to water stored in the first dozen meters of soil and in the shallow aquifer. To a smaller extent, snow also influences Garonne TWSA. Open surface water TWSA is quite small and TWSA from deep aquifer is negligible. The most important drought period occurred in 2011/2012, due to low precipitation during the two hydrological years and ETR close to previous years. Important precipitation in 2013/2014 helps to refill the water stocks. This study also showed that GRACE and models mismatches should be due to GRACE poor spatial resolution, but also to its monthly time resolution (rarely shown in previous studies).

This study deals with the evolution of the hydrological cycle over France during the 21st century. A large multi-member, multi-scenario, and multi-model ensemble of climate projections is downscaled with a new statistical method to drive a physically-based hydrological model with recent improvements. For a business-as-usual scenario, annual precipitation changes generally remain small, except over southern France, where decreases close to 20% are projected. Annual streamflows roughly decrease by 10% (±20%) on the Seine, by 20% (±20%) on the Loire, by 20% (±15%) on the Rhone and by 40% (±15%) on the Garonne. Attenuation measures, as implied by the other scenarios analyzed, lead to less severe changes. However, even with a scenario generally compatible with a limitation of global warming to two degrees, some notable impacts may still occur, with for example a decrease in summer river flows close to 25% for the Garonne.

Characterizing and understanding the multidecadal variations of the continental hydrological cycle is a challenging issue given the limitation of observed data sets. In this paper, a new approach to derive twentieth century hydrological reconstructions over France with an hydrological model is presented. The method combines the results of long‐term atmospheric reanalyses downscaled with a stochastic statistical method and homogenized station observations to derive the meteorological forcing needed for hydrological modeling. Different methodological choices are tested and evaluated. We show that using homogenized observations to constrain the results of statistical downscaling help to improve the reproduction of precipitation, temperature, and river flows variability. In particular, it corrects some unrealistic long‐term trends associated with the atmospheric reanalyses. Observationally constrained reconstructions therefore constitute a valuable data set to study the multidecadal hydrological variations over France. Thanks to these reconstructions, we confirm that the multidecadal variations previously noted in French river flows have mainly a climatic origin. Moreover, we show that multidecadal variations exist in other hydrological variables (evapotranspiration, snow cover, and soil moisture). Depending on the region, the persistence from spring to summer of soil moisture or snow anomalies generated during spring by temperature and precipitation variations may explain river flows variations in summer, when no concomitant climate variations exist.

Land surface models (LSMs) need to balance a complicated trade-off between computational cost and complexity in order to adequately represent the exchanges of energy, water and matter with the atmosphere and the ocean. Some current generation LSMs use a simplified or composite canopy approach that generates recurrent errors in simulated soil temperature and turbulent fluxes. In response to these issues, a new version of the interactions between soil–biosphere–atmosphere (ISBA) land surface model has recently been developed that explicitly solves the transfer of energy and water from the upper canopy and the forest floor, which is characterized as a litter layer. The multi-energy balance (MEB) version of ISBA is first evaluated for three well-instrumented contrasting local-scale sites, and sensitivity tests are performed to explore the behavior of new model parameters. Second, ISBA-MEB is benchmarked against observations from 42 forested sites from the global micro-meteorological network (FLUXNET) for multiple annual cycles.It is shown that ISBA-MEB outperforms the composite version of ISBA in improving the representation of soil temperature, ground, sensible and, to a lesser extent, latent heat fluxes. Both versions of ISBA give comparable results in terms of simulated latent heat flux because of the similar formulations of the water uptake and the stomatal resistance. However, MEB produces a better agreement with the observations of sensible heat flux than the previous version of ISBA for 87.5 % of the simulated years across the 42 forested FLUXNET sites. Most of this improvement arises owing to the improved simulation of the ground conduction flux, which is greatly improved using MEB, especially owing to the forest litter parameterization. It is also shown that certain processes are also modeled more realistically (such as the partitioning of evapotranspiration into transpiration and ground evaporation), even if certain statistical performances are neutral. The analyses demonstrate that the shading effect of the vegetation, the explicit treatment of turbulent transfer for the canopy and ground, and the insulating thermal and hydrological effects of the forest floor litter turn out to be essential for simulating the exchange of energy, water and matter across a large range of forest types and climates.

Snow accumulation in alpine terrain is controlled by three main processes that act at different spatial scales: (i) orographic snowfall, (ii) preferential deposition of snowfall, and (iii) wind-induced snow transport of deposited snow. The relative importance of these processes largely remains uncertain at small scale (10-100 m). This study presents how high-resolution coupled snowpack/atmosphere simulations help quantifying the effects of these processes. The simulation system consists of the detailed snowpack model Crocus and the atmospheric model Meso-NH used in Large Eddy Simulation mode. Dedicated routines allow the coupled system to explicitly simulate wind-induced snow transport. Our case study is a snowfall event that occurred in February 2011 in the French Alps. Three nested domains at 450, 150 and 50 m grid spacing allow the model to simulate the complex 3D precipitation and wind fields down to fine scale. We firstly assess the ability of the coupled model to reproduce meteorological conditions during the event (wind speed and direction, snowfall amount, and blowing snow fluxes). The spatial variability of snowfall and snow accumulation is then considered. At 50 m grid spacing, snowfall presents local maxima associated with the formation of rimed snow aggregates and graupel in regions of sustained updrafts. Variograms show that the resultant spatial variability of snowfall is lower than the variability of snow accumulation when considering snow transport. Despite an overestimation of simulated blowing fluxes, our results suggest that wind-induced snow transport is the main source of spatial variability of snow accumulation in our case study.

For years, some work has been undertaken on the traffic heat issue input in the Town Energy Balance (TEB). It has been the subject of many studies related to the summer period and urban heat islands topic. However, during winter conditions, the traffic energy input was marginally integrated into the modeling of the road surface parameters. This deficiency, may explain the differences between forecast and observations for road surface status (RSS) during winter season. Over the past decade, identification and quantification of traffic effects were undertaken. However, they have been studied independently, and non-numerical model integrates the energy contribution of traffic into the RSS. Based on the (TEB) model (v7.2), recent research provided a detailed integration of the traffic thermal contribution in the TEB. This study showed traffic increases the road surface temperature (R S T) by 2–3 °C, and its heat inputs improve significantly the R S T modeling. This study consists in evaluating the thermal contribution of each traffic process to improve the R S T modeling based on field experiments. Secondly, the most significant physical processes of traffic responsible for R S T changes have been identified and their contributions discussed. Finally, we analyzed the effects of weather conditions onto the thermal contribution of traffic processes.

This paper presents a comparison of two water transfer schemes implemented in land surface models: a three-layer bulk reservoir model based on the force-restore scheme (FR) and a multilayer soil diffusion scheme (DIF) relying on explicit mass-diffusive equations and a root profile. The performances of each model at simulating evapotranspiration (ET) over a 14-yr Mediterranean crop succession are compared when the standard pedotransfer estimates versus the in situ values of the soil parameters are used. The Interactions between Soil, Biosphere, and Atmosphere (ISBA) generic land surface model is employed. When the pedotransfer estimates of the soil parameters are used, the best performance scores are obtained with DIF. DIF provides more accurate simulations of soil evaporation and gravitational drainage. It is less sensitive to errors in the soil parameters compared to FR, which is strongly driven by the soil moisture at field capacity. When the in situ soil parameters are used, the performance of the FR simulations surpasses those of DIF. The use of the proper maximum available water content for the plant removes the bias in ET and soil moisture over the crop cycle with FR, while soil water stress is simulated too early and the transpiration is underestimated with DIF. Increasing the values of the root extinction coefficient and the proportion of homogeneous root distribution slightly improves the DIF performance scores. Spatiotemporal uncertainties in the soil parameters generate smaller uncertainties in ET simulated with DIF compared to FR, which highlights the robustness of DIF for large-scale applications.

Variability in volcanic and anthropogenic emissions of sulfur dioxyde is the main source of sulfate aerosols burden in our past and present atmosphere. Most of SO2 is tough to be oxidized into sulfate within aqueous phase oxydation. Despite a good understanding of the sulfate aerosols formation according to the commun oxydation pathways (i.e. O3, H2O2, O2-TMI) some observations remain mysterious. S-MIF (sulfur anomaly, Δ33S≠0‰) in Archean rocks or in ice core data is thought to result from sulfur photochemistry in low pO2 atmosphere and so under high levels of solar UV radiation which never occurs at tropospheric level in today's atmosphere. So far, it is the only known S-MIF mechanisms. However, this mechanism cannot explain the small but very significant S-MIF (Δ33S≈0.3‰) measured on sulfate aerosols worldwide urban areas. Here, we present a new data set of oxygen and sulfur isotope composition of sulfate aerosols monitored over the past 25 years in Mexico City and also sulfate extracted from fresh ash from Popocatepetl volcano tropospheric emissions. Multiple S- and O- isotope composition were analysed using SF6 fluorination line and Ag2SO4 pyrolysis method. Sulfate aerosols collected on urban area (low-temperature formation) and sulfate collected on volcanic ash (high and/or low temperature formation) present distinct Δ33S and Δ17O values meaning different origins, intermediates and chemical transformations. Concentrations of chemical compounds, isotopic fractionation values and Raleigh distilation processes allow us to propose, in each case, differents hypothesis on the formation pathways.

The paper is presented as a companion paper of a more technical one which describe the new multi energy balance approach developed and implemented within the interactions between the soil biosphere atmosphere model (ISBA) as part of the SURFEX platform. This second paper propose an offline evaluation of the new explicit bulk layer developments described as the so-called ISBA-MEB version, against three wellinstrumented forest sites which cover a range in climate, soils and vegetation characteristics. Moreover, authors presented an adding complexity in introducing an explicit litter layer, detailed and called ISBA-MEBL version. Evaluation of these two new versions of the model (MEB and MEBL) against standard ISBA version are done by investigating