Slip-rate variations over multiple seismic cycles play a fundamental role in controlling the behaviour of active fault systems, as they are linked to spatio-temporal earthquake clustering and can influence the recurrence patterns of adjacent faults. However, processes that produce slip-rate fluctuations are yet to be fully defined. Despite their importance, the physical mechanisms responsible for such slip-rate fluctuations remain only partially understood. In this study, we investigate whether interactions between neighbouring along-strike brittle faults and their underlying viscous shear zones can generate slip-rate variability associated with synchronous earthquake clustering and fault system synchronization. We focus on nine normal faults and related shear zones within the Central Apennines fault system (Italy), arranged in six along-strike fault pairs characterized by different fault spacings and strike geometries. We integrate cosmogenic 36Cl dating of tectonically exhumed fault scarps with numerical modelling of differential stress transfer between interacting fault–shear-zone pairs. The results identify a mechanism capable of producing simultaneous earthquake clusters, driven by the synchronization of high driving stresses within the viscous shear zones beneath the brittle faults. This behaviour is strongly modulated by along-strike fault spacing and strike variations. In settings with closely spaced fault pairs and limited strike variations, earthquake clusters induce positive differential stress variations on neighbouring shear-zones of sufficient magnitude to induce positive slip-rate variations on their overlying brittle faults. This produces positive feedback mechanism that sustains the occurrence of earthquake clusters that will continue to positively load the neighbouring shear zones. These findings provide new insights into fault system dynamics across multiple timescales and have important implications for seismic hazard evaluation.

The Albanides form a segment of the southern Alpine orogenic belt, connecting the northern Dinarides to the southern Hellenides. These NW-SE-trending, predominantly west-verging chains border the eastern Adriatic Basin, where thrust and strike-slip structures influence coastal and offshore sectors, necessitating accurate seismic potential estimates. While historical and instrumental data confirm intense seismicity in western Albania and its offshore areas, gaps remain in current seismic hazard models. To better characterize potential seismogenic sources, we analyzed the region's principal tectonic features, emphasizing surface evidence and potential surface-faulting effects. The study focuses on the highly exposed sector between the Kruja thrust front, the Tirana Plain, and the Adriatic coast—an area marked by significant urban, commercial, and touristic development. This seismic landscape is shaped by Quaternary-to-recent activity along the Shijak thrust and Vora backthrust, which have disrupted and reorganized the fluvial network, as evidenced by multiple river diversions and wind gaps. Although previous studies consider the Kruja thrust front sealed by Upper Miocene molasse and Pliocene sequences, we identified evidence of potential Quaternary activity along its front, likely associated with secondary gravity-driven processes. Additional Quaternary-to-recent compressional deformation and localized uplift are documented along the Makaresh anticline and Fushë-Kruja hills, indicated by an endorheic basin and both local- and basin-scale fluvial diversions. Our data suggest that historical and instrumental seismicity may not capture the maximum seismic and surface-faulting potential of the area. This underscores the necessity of integrating surface geological evidence into seismic hazard models to improve risk assessment and mitigation strategies for communities exposed to earthquake and potential tsunami hazards.

The NW–SE-trending Firenze-Pistoia Basin (FPB) is an intermontane tectonic depression in the Northern Apennines (Italy) bounded to the northeast by a SW-dipping normal fault system. Although it has moderate historical seismicity (maximum estimated Mw 5.5 in 1895), the FPB lacks detailed characterization of its recent tectonic structures, unlike those of nearby basins that have produced Mw > 6 events. This study focuses on the southeastern sector of the basin, including the urban area of Florence, using tectonic geomorphology derived from remote sensing, in particular LiDAR data, field verification, and high-resolution geophysical surveys such as electrical resistivity tomography and seismic reflection profiles. The integration of these techniques enabled interpretation of the subdued and anthropogenically masked tectonic structures, allowing the identification of Holocene activity and significant, although limited, surface vertical offset for three NE–SW-striking normal faults, the Peretola, Scandicci, and Maiano faults. The Scandicci and Maiano faults appear to segment the southeasternmost strand of the master fault of the FPB, the Fiesole Fault, which now shows activity only along isolated segments and cannot be considered a continuous active fault. From empirical relationships, the Scandicci Fault, the most relevant among the three active faults, ~9 km long within the basin and with an approximate Late Quaternary slip rate of ~0.2 mm/year, might source Mw >5.5 earthquakes. These findings highlight the need to reassess the local seismic hazard for more informed urban planning and for better preservation of the cultural and architectural heritage of Florence and the other artistic towns located in the FPB.

We present slip versus time histories derived from in situ 36 Cl cosmogenic dating for three active normal faults in the southern Apennines, Italy. In this region the total extensional strain is accommodated by either a small number of faults located across strike from each other or, in places, a single fault where no other active faults exist across strike. We investigate how strain‐rates on individual faults vary through time in the context of the overall geometry of the fault system. The 36 Cl results confirm that the San Gregorio Magno, Auletta, and Vallo di Diano faults were active in the Holocene, with each fault exhibiting alternating periods of relatively rapid and slow, or even absence of, slip. During periods of rapid slip, lasting a few millennia, the faults accumulate up to ∼5 m of slip, which we interpret as earthquake clusters. At other times, the faults exhibit no slip for time periods lasting multiple millennia. The fluctuations in slip‐rates reveal the migration of activity between faults and out‐of‐phase behavior. Such fluctuations have important consequences for tectonic evolution and crustal rheology, and in particular for hazard estimation because they introduce considerable variability and hence uncertainty in earthquake probability calculations.

A spatio-temporal analysis of seismic activity along the active tectonic fault systems of Albania was conducted in early 2025 employing two diagnostic parameters: the fractal dimension (Dc), which characterizes the heterogeneity, complexity, and clustering of seismicity, and the standard normal deviate (Z), used to identify precursory seismic quiescence. The magnitude of completeness (Mc) across the Albanian fault zones ranges from 2.5 to 3.4, providing a solid basis for reliable interpretation. The obtained Dc value for the Albanian orogenic belt is 1.93 ± 0.04, indicating pronounced seismic clustering, particularly within the seven major fault zones at both regional and local scales. Seismic quiescence, commonly considered a potential precursor to strong earthquakes, proved effective in detecting anomalous patterns that may signal probable locations of future mainshocks. By integrating Dc and Z analyses, this study reveals structural complexities, seismogenic potential, and quiescence anomalies that go beyond conventional seismicity mapping. These findings enhance understanding of earthquake nucleation processes and support improved assessment of areas susceptible to future moderate-to-large seismic events in Albania.

Albania is located within the complex tectonic framework of the external Dinarides and Hellenides, where multiple active fault systems accommodate ongoing crustal shortening. However, significant uncertainties persist regarding fault segmentation, kinematics, and surface expression. This study integrates tectonic geomorphology, field observations, and historical data to reassess the relationships between active structures and destructive seismicity in southern and eastern Albania during the period 1851 to 1942. Remote sensing data, including satellite imagery and digital terrain models, high-resolution topographic data, and field surveys were combined with earthquake catalogues and focal-mechanism datasets to identify and evaluate seismogenic sources in two representative case studies. The first case concerns the Vlora–Elbasani Line and the southern frontal thrust system of the Ionian Zone, which produced a prolonged seismic sequence including more than twelve Mw > 6 earthquakes, culminating in the 1930 event. This sequence is interpreted as a migrating rupture process that facilitated the thrusting of the Ionian Zone over the Sazani Zone. Detailed analysis of the 1897 Dhiver earthquake reveals well-documented coseismic ruptures and highlights the persistence of oral traditions that preserve seismological memory. The second case study focuses on eastern Albania (1894–1942), where strike-slip deformation along the Peshkopi–Bilisht fault system is associated with pull-apart basins and major historical earthquakes within the Ohrid graben.

We present an in situ 36Cl dataset recording the exhumation of 27 active normal fault planes by earthquake slip for the central Apennines, Italy. We do this to constrain the characteristics of earthquake clustering and anticlustering across the entire extending orogen, and in an attempt to constrain the reasons why clustering and anticlustering occurs. We show that duration and magnitude of clustering and anticlustering, and their characteristics, can be explained by a model where the transfer of differential stress between faults and their underlying shear-zones, and between neighbouring fault/shear-zone structures, produces changes in strain-rates on underlying viscous shear zones which drive periods of rapid or reduced slip-rate on their overlying faults. We suggest that stress increase on an underlying shear zone produced by coseismic slip on its overlying fault could be the mechanism that initiates an earthquake cluster. We suggest that stress reductions on shear-zones from coseismic slip located across strike could be the mechanism that initiates an earthquake anticluster. The durations of anticlusters are controlled by the summed stress decreases through time on shear zones, because although these shear zones are slipping relatively slowly, eventually they will load their overlying fault to failure initiating a new cluster, with anticlusters induced across strike. Thus, there is dynamic feedback both up and down dip between faults and their underlying shear zones and crucially across strike between neighbouring fault/shear-zone structures. If the dynamics producing clustering and anticlustering can be constrained, it may be that observations of these phenomena should be included in probabilistic seismic hazard assessments (PSHA) and also interpretations of regional deformation rates and crustal rheologies based on geodetic data. Multi-millennial clustering and anticlustering should become a subject for discussion in these scientific communities.

Uncertainty concerning the processes responsible for slip-rate fluctuations associated with temporal clustering of surface faulting earthquakes is a fundamental, unresolved issue in tectonics, because strain-rates accommodated by fault/shear-zone structures are the key to understanding the viscosity structure of the crust and seismic hazard. We constrain the timing and amplitude of slip-rate fluctuations that occurred on three active normal faults in central Italy over a time period of 20–30 kyrs, using in situ 36Cl cosmogenic dating of fault planes. We identify five periods of rapid slip on individual faults lasting a few millennia, separated time periods of up to 10 millennia with low or zero slip-rate. The rapid slip pulses migrated across the strike between the faults in two waves from SW to NE. We replicate this migration with a model where rapid slip induces changes in differential stress that drive changes in strain-rate on viscous shear zones that drive slip-rate variability on overlying brittle faults. Earthquakes increase the differential stress and strain-rate on underlying shear zones, which in turn accumulate strain, re-loading stress onto the overlying brittle fault. This positive feedback produces high strain-rate episodes containing several large magnitude surface faulting earthquakes (earthquake clusters), but also reduce the differential stress on the viscous portions of neighbouring fault/shear-zones slowing the occurrence of large-magnitude surface faulting earthquakes (earthquake anticlusters). Shear-zones on faults experiencing anticlusters continue to accumulate viscous strain at a lowered rate, and eventually this loads the overlying brittle fault to failure, initiating a period of rapid slip through the positive feedback process described above, and inducing lowered strain-rates onto neighbouring fault/shear-zones. We show that these patterns of differential stress change can replicate the measured earthquake clustering implied by the 36Cl data. The stress changes are related to the fault geometry in terms of distance and azimuth from the slipping structure, implying that (a) strain-rate and viscosity fluctuations for studies of continental rheology, and (b) slip-rates for seismic hazard purposes are to an extent predictable given knowledge of the fault system geometry.

Surface faulting earthquakes are known to cluster in time from historical and palaeoseismic studies in multiple active tectonic settings, including central Greece, southern California and central Italy. However, the mechanism(s) responsible for clustering, such as fault interaction, strain-storage, and evolving dynamic topography, are poorly quantified and hence not well understood. We combine surface dating of active normal fault scarps in central Italy with stress modelling and quartz flow laws, to produce a quantified replication of observed earthquake clustering.We study six active normal faults (including the Mt Vettore fault which ruptured during the 2016 central Italy earthquake sequence) using 36Cl cosmogenic dating. This reveals periods of high and low slip rate, which we interpret to be earthquake clusters/anti-clusters. Interestingly, these changes in slip rate (or clustering) are out-of-phase between neighbouring faults, i.e. when one fault slows down, nearby faults speed up at the same time. To explore the underlying processes driving this out-of-phase clustering behaviour, we link stress transfer caused by slip over clusters/anti-clusters on coupled fault/shear-zone structures with viscous quartz flow laws derived from laboratory experiments.We show that differential stress fluctuates due to fault/shear-zone interactions, and that the magnitude of these fluctuations are sufficient to induce changes in strain-rate and associated slip-rate on neighbouring faults and shear zones. Our results suggest that fault/shear-zone interactions are a plausible and quantifiable explanation for earthquake clustering, thus opening possibilities for process-led and time-dependent seismic hazard assessments.

On December 26, 2018 (2:19 UTC), during a volcanic eruption on the Mt. Etna eastern flank (Sicily, southern Italy), the largest instrumental earthquake ever recorded in the volcano ruptured the Fiandaca Fault, with epicenter between Fleri and Pennisi villages (hypocenter at ca. 300 m a. s. l., Mw 4.9). This was the mainshock of an earthquake swarm and it was accompanied by widespread surface faulting and extensive damage along a narrow belt near the fault trace. Few hours after the mainshock, an episodic aseismic creep event occurred along the Aci Platani Fault, a SE extension of the Fiandaca Fault, which caused several damages in the Aci Platani village. We surveyed and mapped the coseismic and aseismic ground ruptures, and collected structural data on their geometry, displacement, and fault zone fabric. We compared the mapped surface ruptures with topography, lithology, and morphology of the buried top of the sedimentary basement. We conclude that the geometry of the volcanic pile influenced the surface expression of faulting during the December 26, 2018 event. The top surface of the marly clay basement should be considered as a detachment surface for shallow sliding blocks. The earthquake occurred on top of a depression of the sedimentary basement forcing the sliding eastward, causing at surface the re-arrangement of the fault strand pattern and deformation style, switching from shear faulting to a tensile failure. The Fleri earthquake therefore provides an unprecedented dataset for 1) understanding active faulting in the European largest onshore volcano, 2) modeling its complex dynamics, and 3) contributing to a more refined surface faulting hazard assessment at Mt. Etna. Results from this investigation might be useful for characterizing capable faulting in similar volcano-tectonic settings worldwide.

Surface faulting earthquakes are known to cluster in time from historical and palaeoseismic studies, but the mechanism(s) responsible for clustering, such as fault interaction, strain-storage, and evolving dynamic topography, are poorly quantified, and hence not well understood. We present a quantified replication of observed earthquake clustering in central Italy. Six active normal faults are studied using 36Cl cosmogenic dating, revealing out-of-phase periods of high or low surface slip-rate on neighboring structures that we interpret as earthquake clusters and anticlusters. Our calculations link stress transfer caused by slip averaged over clusters and anti-clusters on coupled fault/shear-zone structures to viscous flow laws. We show that (1) differential stress fluctuates during fault/shear-zone interactions, and (2) these fluctuations are of sufficient magnitude to produce changes in strain-rate on viscous shear zones that explain slip-rate changes on their overlying brittle faults. These results suggest that fault/shear-zone interactions are a plausible explanation for clustering, opening the path towards process-led seismic hazard assessments.

Summary In this study, a focal mechanism catalogue of earthquakes for the Albania zone is presented by using a few seismotectonic parameters. There are a total of 505 events in the time interval between 1948 and 2022 with ML3.5. Albania is one of the most seismically active countries with tens of destructive large earthquakes over the past twenty centuries as revealed from the historical sources. Albania is situated in the Alpine-Mediterranean seismic belt and accommodates part of the deformation due to the collision of the Adriatic microplate with the Eurasian plate. This continental collision not only directly influences the activation of longitudinal faults on the edges of the orogeny and on the segments of transversal faults cutting through this contact but has a tectonic implication even on the inner part of Albania. The main cause of Albanian seismicity is the collision of Adria with the Albanian orogeny. Thrust faulting and normal faults are dominant, with a significant presence of events with oblique and a minor presence of strike-slip-faults. This study collected and revised the focal mechanisms that were previously published in the literature and added many new focal mechanisms solutions recently. For each earthquake, we presented here all focal mechanisms obtained by different authors.

We provide here a first-hand description of the coseismic surface effects caused by the Mw 6.4 Petrinja earthquake that hit central Croatia on 29 December 2020. This was one of the strongest seismic events that occurred in Croatia in the last two centuries. Field surveys in the epicentral area allowed us to observe and map primary coseismic effects, including geometry and kinematics of surface faulting, as well as secondary effects, such as liquefaction, sinkholes and landslides. The resulting dataset consists of homogeneous georeferenced records identifying 222 observation points, each of which contains a minimum of 5 to a maximum of 14 numeric and string fields of relevant information. The earthquake caused surface faulting defining a typical ‘conjugate’ fault pattern characterized by Y and X shears, tension cracks (T fractures), and compression structures (P shears) within a ca. 10 km wide (across strike), NW–SE striking right-lateral strike-slip shear zone (i.e., the Petrinja Fault Zone, PFZ). We believe that the results of the field survey provide fundamental information to improve the interpretation of seismological, GPS and InSAR data of this earthquake. Moreover, the data related to the surface faulting may impact future studies focused on earthquake processes in active strike-slip settings, integrating the estimates of slip amount and distribution in assessing the hazard associated with capable transcurrent faults.

Inundation maps are a fundamental tool for coastal risk management and in particular for designing evacuation maps and evacuation planning. These in turn are a necessary component of the tsunami warning systems’ last-mile. In Italy inundation maps are informed by a probabilistic tsunami hazard model. Based on a given level of acceptable risk, Italian authorities in charge for this task recommended to consider, as design hazard intensity, the average return period of 2500 years and the 84th percentile of the hazard model uncertainty. An available, regional-scale tsunami hazard model was used that covers the entire Italian coastline. Safety factors based on analysis of run-up variability and an empirical coastal dissipation law on a digital terrain model (DTM) were applied to convert the regional hazard into the design run-up and the corresponding evacuation maps with a GIS-based approach. Since the regional hazard cannot fully capture the local-scale variability, this simplified and conservative approach is considered a viable and feasible practice to inform local coastal risk management in the absence of high-resolution hazard models. The present work is a first attempt to quantify the uncertainty stemming from such procedure. We compare the GIS-based inundation maps informed by a regional model with those obtained from a local high-resolution hazard model. Two locations on the coast of eastern Sicily were considered, and the local hazard was addressed with the same seismic model as the regional one, but using a higher-resolution DTM and massive numerical inundation calculations with the GPU-based Tsunami-HySEA nonlinear shallow water code. This study shows that the GIS-based inundation maps used for planning deal conservatively with potential hazard underestimation at the local scale, stemming from typically unmodeled uncertainties in the numerical source and tsunami evolution models. The GIS-based maps used for planning fall within the estimated “error-bar” due to such uncertainties. The analysis also demonstrates the need to develop local assessments to serve very specific risk mitigation actions to reduce the uncertainty. More in general, the presented case-studies highlight the importance to explore ways of dealing with uncertainty hidden within the high-resolution numerical inundation models, e.g., related to the crude parameterization of the bottom friction, or the inaccuracy of the DTM.

The Lunigiana basin is a NW trending tectonic depression located in the Northern Apennines of Italy. The basin is bounded by active normal faults, characterized by moderate to strong seismicity, with historical earthquakes reaching up to magnitude 6 (February 14,1834) and instrumental events with magnitude up to 5.4 (June 21, 2013). Using the classical methodologies of active tectonic studies (i.e. remote sensing and digital topography analysis, field mapping, structural geology, and tectonic geomorphology), the main active faults have been mapped for their geometries, kinematics and evidence of activity. Both fault systems bounding the basin to the northeast and southwest have revealed clear evidence of fault capability, i.e., tectonic displacement of the latest Pleistocene-Holocene sediments and geomorphic markers. Then, the study focused on the southwestern Arzelato-Mulazzo-Tresana fault system (AMT), depicting its Late Quaternary tectono-sedimentary evolution and linkage relationship between important fault segments. The throw measurement of key geomorphic markers on the central fault of the AMT allowed to derive medium(last 350-250 ka) and short-term (18-13 ka) vertical slip rates: 0.44-0.62 and 0.45-0.68 mm/yr, respectively. Lastly, an exploratory trench for paleoseismological analysis was dug across the fault scarp where geomorphic indicators of active surface faulting were most pronounced, just south of the village of Mulazzo. Its paleoseismological analysis revealed at least two events of surface faulting, with a cumulative throw in excess of 70 cm, occurred in historical times. Radiocarbon dating of the exposed alluvial and slope deposits allowed to bracket the surface rupture events to 14th to 19th century CE and after the 18th century CE. Typically, in the active extensional belt of the Apennines, the observed offsets correspond to earthquakes of magnitude >6.3, also confirmed by the empirical fault-scaling laws. This magnitude is, therefore, higher than that currently inferred for this seismic source (Mw 5.7 divided by 6.0 in the DISS catalog) and is comparable to that experienced in the adjoining Garfagnana basin (Mw 6.5 on September 7, 1920). The findings of this research suggests a need to revise the seismic hazard of the Lunigiana basin, including greater consideration of the surface faulting hazard in the seismic microzonation studies. More generally, our findings provide new insight into the comprehension of a) the still unclear deep geometry (listric or not?) and the hierarchy of bounding faults, and b) provide new elements to decipher the puzzling seismotectonic relationships of Lunigiana with the adjoining basins on both its ends, characterized by quite different structural settings. (C) 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

SUMMARY The Mw 6.4 26 November 2019, earthquake has been the strongest in the last decades in Albania, causing damages of intensity VIII to IX EMS in the epicentral region around Durres. The region north of Durres has experienced a maximum uplift of ca. 11 cm, based on SAR interferometry, which represents the main environmental effect induced by the earthquake. Other coseismic environmental effects were liquefaction mostly in the coastal area north and south of Durres, lateral spread in the Erzen river banks and possibly minor rock falls. As a whole, the observed effects are indicative of an intensity VIII to IX in the ESI scale. The rupture parameters that best fits the earthquake data (seismic moment, hypocentre depth, GPS data, deformation field from SAR interferometry), based on Coulomb modelling, show a reverse slip of 0.6 m on a NW–SE trending plane dipping 25° northeast, 20 km long and ca. 12 km wide, from 19.5 to ca. 15 km deep. The surface projection of the upper tip of the rupture is on the coast north of Durres. The inferred Coulomb stress change does not impose any significant load on the surrounding major faults, that is Kruja thrust, Lezha transfer fault, and the offshore thrust fault responsible for the 1979 Mw 7.1 Montenegro earthquake. The historical earthquakes and the regional tectonic setting, dominated by plate collision and important transfer fault zones suggest that the last earthquake might not be representative of the actual maximum seismic and surface faulting hazards in northwestern Albania, a region of fast industrial and touristic growth. This calls for detailed active tectonics studies with a palaeoseismological perspective in the region surrounding the epicentral area, where the two main towns in Albania lie.

On December 26, 2018, the largest instrumental earthquake ever recorded in Mt. Etna (Sicily, southern Italy) shook the eastern flank of the volcano, with epicenter near the Fleri village along the right-lateral Fiandaca Fault (focal depth less than 1 km, Mw 4.9). The mainshock was accompanied by widespread surface faulting. We surveyed and mapped the coseismic ground ruptures and collected structural data on their orientation, displacement and fabric at surface. We compared the fault zone characteristics with near surface and deeper driving factors (topography and morphology of the buried top of sedimentary basement). The shallow geological layering underneath influenced the surface expression of faulting during the 2018 event: the top surface of the basement could be considered as a detachment surface for a shallow sliding block. The earthquake occurred on top of a depression of the sedimentary basement forcing the sliding eastward, causing at surface the re-arrangement of the fault strand pattern and deformation style, switching from shear faulting to a tensile failure. The Fleri earthquake therefore provides an unprecedented dataset for understanding 1) active faulting in the European largest onshore volcano, 2) the complex dynamics of this edifice, and 3) contributing to a more refined seismic hazard assessment.

In the framework of a bilateral cooperation project between the geological surveys of China and Italy, the geological effects of six strong to moderate earthquakes occurred in Sichuan, China (2008, 2013, 2017) and in Central Apennines, Italy (2009, 24 Aug. and 30 Oct 2016) were compared. The main aim was to test the applicability and effectiveness of the ESI intensity scale in areas characterized by different tectonic settings (compressive and strike-slip vs. extensional), and also by different local conditions (e.g., geomorphologic, lithologic and climatic) that can influence the occurrence and size of individual EEEs at a specific site. In general, for all these earthquakes the distribution and size of geological effects resulted proportional to the earthquake severity. However, notably, the earthquakes of moderate magnitude (i.e., between 6 and 7) showed i) well evident surface faulting only in the extensional domain of the Central Apennines, while poor or no evidence was found for reverse and strike-slip events (Sichuan); ii) a strong influence on the occurrence of secondary effects from site conditions (e.g., lithology, elevation, slope angle, soil cover, climate), those that typically control for example the susceptibility to landsliding. Based on the ESI intensity scale, epicentral and local intensities were estimated by means of the surface faulting extent and of the total area of secondary effects, mainly landslides. The comparison with the damage or PGA-based intensities has confirmed the efficacy of the ESI scale to improve the portrait of the earthquake and to pinpoint areas of enhanced hazard, especially those related to slope failures and liquefaction. This work is also a substantial contribution to the future revision of the ESI scale, in particular for reverse faulting earthquakes.