Salt intake through processed foods is very high. Although some industrial strategies use sodium salt substitutes or other types of intervention to reduce sodium in foods, they do not change consumer habits or appreciation for reduced salt levels. This study therefore aimed to evaluate the maximum sodium reduction that can be achieved in a commercial salty cracker without affecting the hedonic response of consumers during a 11-week longitudinal sodium reduction intervention. Perceived salt intensity was also measured. Three steps of salt reduction were identified as feasible, 2.37 g, to 2.0 g, 1.8 g and then 1.5 g of NaCL per 100 g of product with a different surface/ dough salt distribution. The samples were given to two groups of volunteers: 1) an intervention group (n = 58), who consumed the crackers with the original salt level in the first two weeks, followed by crackers with the progressive reduction of salt, with a variation in salt concentration every three weeks; 2) a control group (n = 52), who received the same sample with the original salt level every week. A 37 % reduction in salt (NaCl) was achieved with no significant difference in liking between the intervention and the control groups. Minor variations in individual liking status were observed among the subjects: only 32 % of consumers showed a marginal decreasing trend in the perceived salt intensity during the 11-week of the intervention study, with no effect on liking. This group began to perceive the difference in saltiness at the second reduction step (1.8 g/100 g). Regarding salty taste sensitivity, this study found no significant association between salty taste thresholds and overall liking or perception of saltiness during the 11-weeks intervention period.

Essential oils (EOs) from 6 genotypes of rosemary of different geographical origins were subjected to sensory, GC-Olfactometry (GC-O) as well as GC-MS analyses, to pinpoint odor-active compounds. A single EO sample was analyzed for each genotype. The quantitative descriptive sensory analysis highlighted significant differences among the essential oils in terms of rosemary, eucalyptus/balsamic, and fruity note intensities. By GC-O, 32 odor-active compounds were detected, 28 of which were identified. Flavor dilution factors (FD), determined by using the aroma extract dilution analysis method, and Odor Active Values, calculated after quantification by GC-MS analysis, consistently indicated that the compounds with the greatest impact on the overall odor were 1,8-cineole, α-pinene, 1-hexen-3-one, β-damascenone, 1-octen-3-one, linalool, and fenchol. Four out of these 7 compounds, being present at very low concentrations, had never been reported in rosemary EO (1-hexen-3-one and β-damascenone) or had previously been detected at trace level (1-octen-3-one and fenchol). These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the molecular basis of rosemary EO aroma. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The findings of this study indicate which compounds should be prioritized in future investigations of rosemary EO's olfactory properties. This information could help emphasize the sensory excellence of genotypes with distinct geographical origins and enhance the sensory attributes of rosemary EO for use in flavoring and food preservation.

Reducing the sugar content of industrial biscuits is a global proposal aimed at improving health and ensuring correct calorie intake in human nutrition. This study aimed to evaluate the extent to which the sugar content of commercial biscuits can be reduced without affecting consumers' hedonic response. Following a panel session, the feasible sugar reduction was identified. The original sugar content of 20 g per 100 g of product was reduced to 14 g per 100 g of product, a reduction of 30%. Of this, 3.4 g was on the surface and 1.1 g was used for glazing. The amount of sugar on the surface was kept constant in both product samples. A group of volunteers evaluated the products twice: at the beginning of the experiment and after five weeks of daily tasting. This enabled us to assess their response both before and after they had become accustomed to the product. In the first week, the volunteers consumed standard biscuits; from the second to the fifth week, they consumed the reduced-sugar sample. Consumers could perceive the 30% reduction in sugar, but it only had a marginal effect on how much they liked the product. A slight decrease in liking was observed for both samples between the first and last weeks. Participants classified as sweet likers (16%) or moderate sweet likers (24%) showed a significant preference for biscuits with a higher sucrose content. However, the variation in sweetness between the two biscuit versions did not affect the preference of the remaining 60% of participants. Inter-individual differences in taste sensitivity (sweet taste threshold) did not affect liking or perceived sweetness. Consumer segmentation based on preferences for salty or sweet meals confirms that hedonic measurements are more closely associated with dietary habits. These findings are significant in encouraging greater industrial production of sweets with lower added sugar content.

Two cultivars of wild rocket (Diplotaxis tenuifolia), cv. Denver and Marte, were subjected to chemical determination of flavour-related constituents, sensory descriptive analysis, and measurement of liking by consumer test. Consumers evaluated rocket leaves both as a single ingredient and in a recipe formed by a roll of bresaola with also Grana Padano cheese. Sensory analyses showed that Marte was characterized by a more intense bitterness, hotness, and pungency, which corresponded to a higher total GSL content, mainly due to a higher level of dimeric 4-mercaptobutyl GSL. Five clusters of consumers were identified based on their liking scores. When tasting rocket leaves as a single ingredient, three clusters showed a higher liking for the milder cultivar, one cluster showed an opposite preference, while flavour attributes, such as bitterness and hotness, appeared as the main drivers of liking. Differences in liking were no longer found between the two cultivars when rocket leaves were evaluated in the recipe. Therefore, as rocket leaves are generally consumed as a part of a recipe with other ingredients instead of as a single ingredient, in the assessment of consumer preferences, it should not be neglected the influence of the way in which the product is consumed.

This review article aims to provide an up-to-date overview of the main determinants of consumers’ acceptance of novel foods (new foods and ingredients) in the EU with emphasis on product’s intrinsic properties (sensory characteristics) and individual factors (socio-demographics, perceptive, psychological) by adopting a systematic approach following the PRISMA methodology. Case studies on terrestrial (i.e., insects, cultured meat and other animal origin products, plant-based food including mushrooms, plant-based analogues, pulses, and cereals) and aquatic systems (i.e., algae and jellyfish) are included focusing on age-related and cross-national differences in consumer acceptance of novel foods and ingredients. General trends have emerged that are common to all the novel foods analysed, regardless of their aquatic or terrestrial origin. Aspects such as food neophobia, unfamiliarity, and poor knowledge of the product are important barriers to the consumption of novel foods, while healthiness and environmental sustainability perception are drivers of acceptance. Sensory properties are challenging for more familiar ingredients such as plant-based food (e.g., novel food made by pulses, mushrooms, cereals and pseudocereals). Results are discussed in terms of feasibility of introducing these products in the EU food systems highlighting strategies that can encourage the use of new ingredients or novel foods.

European long shelf-life (LSL) tomato landraces can be classified into two main groups: the Italian group, including ‘Piennolo’ landraces, and the Spanish group, including the ‘Penjar’ and ‘Ramellet’ landraces. In this study, a partially common set of ‘Piennolo’ and ‘Penjar-Ramellet’ varieties was grown in Italy and Spain to evaluate the effect of different agro-environmental and storage conditions on fruit quality and shelf-life. Overall, both Italian and Spanish LSL genotypes lost their peculiar phenotype in terms of physicochemical properties and shelf-life behavior when not grown in their original agro-environment. To better understand the sensory attributes that drive consumers’ preferences, all varieties were characterized using descriptive sensory analysis combined with hedonic tests. The evaluations were conducted postharvest on raw and processed products according to the country’s culinary tradition (baked in Italy; spread on bread in Spain). Sensory description by trained panels conducted on raw and processed products highlighted different sensory profiles between the two LSL tomato groups. In the ‘Piennolo’ group, a reduction in sensory diversity among the genotypes was observed in the baked products compared to the raw ones, while this trend was not observed for the ‘Penjar-Ramellet’ group. None of the varieties fully met the consumers’ preferences.

The potential of game-based experiential workshops to complement focus groups in identifying drivers/barriers to environmentally sustainable food systems was explored. Sixty adults from an Italian bio-district answered to a questionnaire; among them, nineteen and twenty-one people participated in a game-based experiential workshop and in a focus group, respectively. The experiential workshop involved games, image theater, and on-the-spot feedback. The body language recorded during the workshop captured information on the transparency of producers and on the oppression from public institutions as perceived by citizens. Experiential workshops may have advantages over focus groups in terms of diagnostic potential. AcknowledgmentsAuthors are thankful to Loredana Bertelli for her support in designing the questionnaire, to the coordinator of the bio-district Anna Cedrini for the hospitality at farmhouse Poggio Nebbia, to Parteciparte’s facilitators and to all participants.Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1 In this study, the term “food producers” refers to all citizens who earn their living at any stage of the food supply chain i.e. from growing, raising, processing, preparing, manufacturing, distributing or adding value to food products. All other citizens living or working in the area are considered “Food consumers.”2 All participants and facilitators signed a photo release form.3 This study was carried out in agreement with the Declaration of Helsinki (WMA, 2013) and national and international regulations. Personal information was anonymous. This study did not require the approval of an ethics committee since the sensitive personal data of participants could not be tracked.Additional informationFundingThis work was supported by the European Sensory Network (ESN), under Grant [2021 - 48235].Notes on contributorsCatherine LeclercqCatherine Leclercq, PhD degree in Nutrition, research director at the Center for Food and Nutrition, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics (CREA-AN) of Rome, Italy. She has been working for 35 years to serve public research, academia, and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. She has been for decades a member of scientific committees of the European Food Safety Authority and of United Nations. Her areas of work have been nutrition epidemiology to assess diet adequacy, dietary exposure to food chemicals, and assessment of food’s environmental impact. Since 2016 she has developed and used game-based experiential workshops as a social learning approach. Her recent focus is on involving actors of the food system to move toward more sustainable food systems.Anna SabaAnna Saba, senior researcher at the Center for Food and Nutrition, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics (CREA-AN) of Rome, Italy. She has been carrying out research on a range of topics related to understanding factors influencing food choices aimed at deepening the processes involved in consumer decision-making related to general food-related topics, and to specific categories of foods and segments of the population. She taught Statistical Methodologies and Mathematical Models at the University of Pavia and Sociology of Food Behavior at the University “La Sapienza” in Rome.Elisabetta MonetaElisabetta Moneta, research specialist at the Center for Food and Nutrition, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics (CREA-AN) of Rome, Italy with more than 30 years of experience in sensory and consumer sciences. She has been collaborating in the design and implementation of national and international research projects concerning studies on the organoleptic quality of food, including analysis of the role of the hedonic component in consumer preferences and food choices. She has developed methodologies in consumer preference research, with emphasis on emotional, genetic, and purchase/consumption contexts;. She teaches Sensory Analysis of Food at Roma tre University.Nicoletta NardoNicoletta Nardo, research specialist for 30 years at the Center for Food and Nutrition, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics (CREA-AN) of Rome, Italy. She participated in numerous research projects, both European and national. She has dealt with the development and implementation of methods for the determination of chemical (nutritional and organoleptic-related compounds) composition of food products.Fausta NatellaFausta Natella, graduated in Biological Sciences, Ph.D. in “Cellular and Molecular Physiopathology,” senior scientist at the Center for Food and Nutrition, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics (CREA-AN) of Rome, Italy. Her research activities focus on the role of different components of the diet (bioactive molecules/food/meal) in the modulation of health status.Marina PeparaioMarina Peparaio, research specialist in sensory and consumer sciences at the Center for Food and Nutrition, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics (CREA-AN) of Rome, Italy. For over 30 years, she has been involved in studies on the organoleptic quality of food and their consumer perception, the development, standardization, and application of sensory methodologies, and the correlation between sensory and analytical data using univariate and multivariate statistical analysis techniques.Eleonora Saggia CivitelliEleonora Saggia Civitelli, research specialist at the Center for Food and Nutrition, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics (CREA-AN) of Rome, Italy. She has been involved in sensory analysis, in particular studies on the organoleptic quality of food, the development, standardization, and application of sensory methodologies, research on the factors of variation of the organoleptic perception of the consumer, and correlation studies between sensory and analytical data using univariate and multivariate statistical analysis techniques.Elisabetta TotiElisabetta Toti, Master’s degree in Human Nutrition Science, research specialist at the Center for Food and Nutrition, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics (CREA-AN) of Rome, Italy. Her areas of research include nutritional epidemiology and micronutrient bioavailability, in both high-income countries and middle-income countries. She has over 30 years of professional experience focused on dietary intake, body composition, antioxidant status in humans and their subsequent impact on health. She has recently been involved in studies on the evaluation of the impact of food waste and on the assessment of the environmental impact of food.Fiorella SinesioFiorella Sinesio is a senior researcher, expert in sensory and consumer research, with a focus on the influence of food factors (sensory properties and extrinsic characteristics) in the formation of consumers’ perceptions, preferences, and food choices. She investigates impact of consumer factors (attitudes, psychological and physiological factors) on preference and behavior. Her activity is also focused on development and implementation of novel methods for sensory and consumer research. Representative in the European Sensory Network (ESN) of which she has been chairman from 2005 to 2007.

The Italian espresso coffee is a very popular drink worldwide. Roasting of coffee grains represents a key step in the development of the beverage characteristics and aroma. A coffee blend (80% Coffea arabica and 20% canephora) of a well-known Italian coffee firm underwent 3 roasting conditions (standard with end temperature of 216 °C, below standard with end temperature of 206 °C and over standard with end temperature of 223 °C) to study the effects of processing conditions on the chemical composition of the coffee powder and on the chemical and sensory characteristics of the espresso beverage. Proximate composition, polar and semi-polar metabolome (amino acids and aliphatic acids), chlorogenic acids, and volatile organic compounds were determined in the powder and beverage by means of standard methods, HPLC-ESI(±)-HRMS, HPLC–PDA/ESI–MS and HS-SPME/GC–MS respectively. Changes induced in the powder and beverage by roasting conditions are described with heatmaps and correlation networks between polar metabolites and sensory characteristics of the espresso beverage are reported. The concentration of chlorogenic acids is inversely proportional to the roasting temperature and the lower is the roasting temperature, the higher is the acid taste in the espresso. Some volatile organic compounds might be analytical markers of the strength of the roasting process. Cream and body of drink are increased as roasting temperature increases.

Purpose The study aimed to investigate consumers’ views on criteria to be claimed for organic processed foods and information to be communicated. Design/methodology/approach An online survey was carried out among 439 adults living in Italy, users of processed organic food, to gather opinions on criteria that processing of organic food should meet and on the terms that best define “careful” processing. Next, a conjoint design was applied to examine the effects of five independent factors on consumers' ideal concept of “organic”; these were potential information on packaging, processing, additives and product quality, and the type of food product. Three products with different processing level were selected: an ultra-processed and multi-ingredient product (vegetable burger), a processed product preserved by canning (peas in glass jar) and a minimally processed product (bagged salad). Findings The findings highlight that consumers attach more importance to the organic food carrier than the informational messages. Information on the processing and packaging follows, with messages on quality and on additives seemingly of minor importance. Three clusters of respondents were identified: those driven primarily by the type of organic food (24.6%), those placing more emphasis on product processing (21.3%), and a third larger cluster (54.1%) who expressed almost equal importance to all the factors considered. As for the processing of organic products, “eco-friendly” was the best message. Originality/value This paper offers insights into what best outlines the ideal concept of “processed organic food” as seen by organic food consumers, to be communicated to better guide their purchasing decisions.

Nutritional and sensory quality of wild rocket leaves (Diplotaxis tenuifolia L., cv. Grazia) subjected to commercial processing and packaging were monitored for up to 7 days of cold storage and compared with the quality of unprocessed and unpackaged leaves from the same harvest. Nutritional quality was assessed by determining total phenolics, vitamin C and folate content. Sensory quality was assessed by quantitative descriptive analysis, combined with analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). No change in vitamin C and folate content was observed in processed rocket leaves up to 7 days of cold storage, whereas unprocessed leaves showed a marked loss of both of them at the end of the storage time (52% and 71%, respectively). Total phenol content decreased during cold storage in both rocket leaves samples, but at a lower extent in the processed leaves. While most sensory attributes showed significant degradation during storage in both processed and unprocessed leaves, at the end of the storage time processed leaves had better retained some appearance (colour, turgidity, integrity), flavour (bitterness and bitter persistence) and texture (firmness and chewing consistency) attributes of the fresh leaves. A marked decrease during storage of some potent key odorants, such as (Z)-3-hexenal, (E)-3-hexenal, as well as 1-penten-3-one, corresponded to the weakening of fresh herbaceous/green sensory notes and pungency in both rocket leaves samples. Commercial processing and packaging operations proved to be effective at better preserving nutritional and sensory quality of wild rocket leaves and, thus, at prolonging their shelf life.

This study, which was conducted as part of the Italian Taste project, was aimed at exploring the relationship between actual liking and sensory perception in four food models. Each food model was spiked with four levels of prototypical tastant (i.e., citric acid, sucrose, sodium chloride, capsaicin) to elicit a target sensation (TS) at an increasing perceived intensity. Participants (N = 2258; 59% women, aged 18–60) provided demographic information, a stated liking for 40 different foods/beverages, and their responsiveness to tastants in water. A food-specific Pearson’s coefficient was calculated individually to estimate the relationship between actual liking and TS responsiveness. Considering the relationship magnitude, consumers were grouped into four food-specific clusters, depending on whether they showed a strong negative (SNC), a weak negative (WNC), a weak positive (WPC), or a strong positive correlation (SPC). Overall, the degree of liking raised in parallel with sweetness responsiveness, fell as sourness and pungency perception increased, and showed an inverted U-shape relationship with saltiness. The SNC clusters generally perceived TSs at higher intensities, except for sourness. Clusters were validated by associating the level of stated liking towards food/beverages; however, some unexpected indications emerged: adding sugar to coffee or preferring spicy foods differentiated those presenting positive correlations from those showing negative correlations. Our findings constitute a step towards a more comprehensive understanding of food preferences.

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The past few decades have seen significant methodological and theoretical change within sensory science, including in food sciences. The physiological reaction to the Autonomous Nervous System (ANS) provides insightful information in interpreting consumers' sensory and affective reactions. In this regard, we investigated how explicit responses of liking and perceived intensity of sensory features (sweet, bitter, and astringency) and implicit objective physiological responses of Heart Rate (HR) and Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) are modulated when varying the sweetness (sucrose concentration with 38; 83; 119; 233 g/kg) level in a cocoa-based product (dark chocolate pudding) and their relationship. The demographic effects on responses were also investigated. Results showed the effects of the sucrose concentration levels on liking and perceived intensity of all the sensory characteristics and on HR responses, which highlighted a significant effect of the sucrose concentration level. As regards the relationship between variables, a significant positive effect was found for the sucrose concentration level 3, where an increase in HR leads to an increase in liking; for the perceived bitterness, a significant positive effect of HR for the sucrose concentration level 1; and for the perceived astringent, a significant positive effect of HR for the sucrose concentration level 2. While we found no significant main effect of gender on our dependent variables, the results highlight a significant main effect of age, increasing the adult population responses. The present research helps to understand better the relationship between explicit and implicit sensory study variables with foods. Furthermore, it has managerial applications for chocolate product developers. The level of sweetness that might be optimal to satisfy at the explicit level (liking) and the implicit level (HR or emotional valence) is identified.

Consumer dissatisfaction with the flavor quality of many modern fresh market tomato varieties has fostered breeders’ interest in sensory quality improvement, and the demand for traditional varieties, which are generally associated with better flavor. To achieve further knowledge on the factors influencing the sensory quality and consumers’ preferences and perception, European traditional and modern fresh market tomato varieties were grown and evaluated in France, Italy, and Spain. Different growing conditions were tested in France (soilless vs. soil) and in Spain (open field vs. greenhouse), while in Italy fruits were evaluated at two ripening stages. Fruit quality was assessed by integrating physicochemical analyses, sensory profiles, and consumer tests. In all three countries, overall modern varieties were perceived as having more intense “tomato flavor” and “overall flavor” than traditional ones. In France and Spain, consumers’ preferences were more oriented towards modern varieties than traditional ones. Significant growing condition effects were found on sensory and physicochemical traits, while the effect on consumers’ overall liking was not significant, largely depending on the genotype. A fair agreement between product configurations from descriptive analysis by trained assessors and Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) questions by consumers was observed. Penalty-lift analysis based on CATA allowed identifying positive and negative drivers of liking.

Wine consumption is a sensory experience that can evoke a wide range of emotional responses and heterogeneous hedonic reactions, that also depend on the circumstances in which the product is consumed. The recent literature has extensively addressed emotions elicited by wine consumption; however little research has been done on the effect of the context of consumption. This study focuses on how testing contexts and Chianti wine traits impact on liking, desire to consume again, wine-evoked emotions and perceived flavour, by comparing measurements recorded in a standard sensory laboratory (CLT), in an evoked consumption situation (images and self-description of their own habitual context of consumption) (CLT-evoked) and in a home use test in natural testing conditions (HUT), on commercial Chianti wine samples by regular consumers of red wine. The results of this study show that liking and intention to consume did not vary significantly among the test settings. This finding would suggest that the testing conditions have low relevance compared to the wine samples. However, the context influenced emotion and sensory terms. In the home use test a lowering of scores was found, both for positive and negative emotions and for sensory terms. In the HUT context a longer time for testing resulted in a better product separation. Pleasure of Chianti wine was associated with the emotions: pleasant, peaceable, joyful, amusing, and best correlated with the sensory attribute sweet. Unpleasantness was associated to the emotions: aggressive, disgusting, and overwhelming, and with the sensory terms acid, dry, astringent. Level of arousal was positively associated with euphoric, passionate, and keen, and well correlated with spicy and persistent as sensory characteristics.

In the last decade, considerable interest was given to the measurement of emotional responses to samples. Such measures were designed to go beyond liking and better understand how the actual product, with or without a context, could elicit positive of negative emotions that help inform overall product performance. Products can be optimised according to their emotions profile as well as their sensory profile, and such information is valuable from a marketing point of view as it opens new doors for advertising, claims, etc. What needs further investigation is how relevant and how valid this information is. In recent studies, it was argued that emotional responses are not so much driven by the samples themselves, but by the context gravitating around the samples and around the assessors.To better understand the consumers’ self-reported emotional responses, the same 4 beer samples were evaluated in 5 different test conditions including a Central Location Test, a real and a re-created pub, and 2 Virtual Reality situations (VR goggles projecting a 360° video and VR combining 3D modelling and 360° photos) simulating a pub experience. For each condition, a CATA task including 11 emotion terms was performed by just over 100 consumers.The direct impact of the samples on the emotional responses were first evaluated overall, before being compared between test conditions and using the test settings (presentation order). The results show that although the samples were quite similar, they conveyed different emotional responses to the consumers. However, these emotional responses seem less strong than the one conveyed by the different test situations, or even the test settings. The presentation order, for instance, appears to play an important and consistent role on the emotional responses.

The Mediterranean diet (MD) is associated with many health benefits. The association between the MD and food neophobia (FN) is still unexplored in adults. The present cross-sectional study was aimed to explore the relationships between adherence to the MD, FN, and sociodemographic variables in a large Italian cohort. Familiarity and frequency use (FFI) of prototypical and non-prototypical Mediterranean foods were used to calculate a new adherence index: the Italian Taste Mediterranean Index (ITMI). The FFI of all Mediterranean foods increased with age, while butter, soft drinks, red/cured meat, and sweets were more common in younger people. Accordingly, ITMI increased with age (F2,2384 = 54.11; p < 0.0001). Women recorded a higher ITMI (6.70) than men (6.10). Individuals with high FN showed higher FFI for soft drinks and sweets and lower ones for most typical MD foods, than individuals with low FNs. A decrease of ITMI was recorded with the increase of the FN(F2,2384 = 22.84; p < 0.0001). With ageing, ITMI increased even in individuals with a high FN. The results suggest that FN may negatively affect adherence to the MD, lowering its potential health benefits, in the adult population. Monitoring of food habits, dietary education, and anxiety management, may be valuable tools to control FN and support the adherence to the MD.

The efficacy of two sodium reduction strategies in preserving sensory profile and consumer liking of yeasted wheat bread was tested, by combining sensory data, aroma compounds and consumer investigations. The use of (i) a reduced-sodium salt substitute, Pansalt® (NaCl 57%, other salts and minor ingredients) at 1.5%, and (ii) the heterogeneous NaCl distribution (average level of 1%) leading to enhanced saltiness by taste contrast, were compared with standard (1.5%) and reduced (1.0%) addition of NaCl. The heterogeneous NaCl distribution was effective in preserving saltiness. Salt substitution with Pansalt® was less effective but preserved the overall flavour. Higher amount of Maillard reaction volatile products, associated with more intense toasted odour of the crust, was found in breads with higher NaCl content. The consumer survey highlighted satisfactory results of Pansalt® use for 58% of the respondents (equal or higher liking and purchase intention). Heterogeneous salt distribution was effective for 31% of consumers.

Immersive technologies simulating real-life environments can be effective tools in consumer testing, providing results with a higher external validity than laboratory testing and be a valid alternative to consumer testing in real-life situations. The current study compares three immersive techniques implemented in laboratory settings reproducing the situation of ‘drinking beer in a pub’ – 1. immersive room with the projection of the situation on flat walls with videos at 180° and with a pub set-up, 2. VR headset with the projection of the situation from a 360° Video, 3. VR headset with the projection of the situation from 3D modelling and 360° photos. The aim was to assess their added value versus tests conducted in a traditional testing environment (“in-lab”) and in a real pub. Emotional profile, liking, intention to re-taste the beer samples and consumers’ perceived engagement were assessed and compared in these five test conditions. A total of 513 Italian male adults (mean age 37.4) were involved in the study, each participating in one test setting. The immersive techniques were assessed for efficacy in products’ discrimination and repeatability through comparison of duplicate samples. Overall, the findings provided evidence of lesser product discrimination for hedonic questions and for emotions in assessments in the real pub and in the immersive approaches compared with central location test. Repeatability, measured as proximity of hedonic scores provided by individual participants to the duplicate products, was better in the real pub and in the immersive room. Data on emotions showed a good level of repeatability in all the test conditions. Moreover, the frequency of emotions showing positive relation with liking was higher for in-context evaluations compared to central location test. All the immersive technologies tested improved consumers engagement. Overall, more similarity of the results with the real pub was obtained for the immersive room and VR 3D modelling.

The purpose of the current study, was to apply and validate the factor structure of the Health and Taste Attitude Scales in an Italian adult sample of 1224 subjects, recruited on a national basis in order to characterise consumers’ food-related attitudes with weak and strong connotations of health and taste. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were used to evaluate the factor structure of the three sub-scales of Health (General health interest, Light product interest, Natural product interest) and three sub-scales of Taste (Craving for sweet foods, Using foods as a reward, Pleasure). Results showed that the internal structure was similar to the theoretical proposal, with two exceptions for the Taste scale. The Pleasure sub-scale presented strong problematic loadings and consequently was removed from the model. The Craving for sweet foods sub-scale was split into two new underlying constructs describing attitudes towards craving for sweet food based on their own experience and attitudes towards other-people’s craving.The three Health sub-scales were used as a basis for the derivation of consumers clusters. Three groups of subjects with different interest in food-related health (Low, Medium, and High Interest) were identified. This segmentation confirmed an association between positive attitudes towards health and liking and familiarity with selected food groups. People more convenience-oriented and less interested in product information and food quality had higher probability to have a lower interest in food-related health. Subjects with higher positive attitudes towards using foods as a reward had a higher probability to belong to the cluster with lower interest in food-related health.