The widespread practice of multiple harvests is known to significantly affect the quality of rocket leaves. Thus, ready-to-eat wild rocket (Diplotaxis tenuifolia L.) was produced under commercial conditions using leaves from five different varieties, harvested at both the first and the second cut, with a 21-day interval between cuts. Both the sensory and nutritional quality of rocket leaves were evaluated one day after packaging (beginning of shelf-life) and after an additional six days of storage at 6 °C (end of shelf-life). At the beginning of the shelf-life, first-cut leaves generally exhibited a more intense flavor, corresponding to a higher level of isothiocyanates, compared to second-cut leaves. At the end of shelf-life, first-cut leaves showed a greater susceptibility to off-flavor development, corresponding to the release of higher levels of sulfur compounds within the packages. First-cut leaves showed higher content of ascorbic acid and folate with respect of second-cut leaves, both at the beginning and the end of the shelf-life. The commonly held assumption that successive cuts yield leaves with more intense flavor compared to the first cut does not appear to be confirmed. It is likely that the differences in quality observed between leaves from the first and second cuts are not attributable solely to the cutting process or to the sequence of multiple harvest per se, but rather to significant variations in environmental conditions, particularly temperature and light, during the leaf growth period between the two harvests.

Sulforaphane (SF), the renowned hydrolysis product of glucoraphanin from broccoli, is known to undergo thermal degradation to 3-butenyl isothiocyanate (3-BITC) during gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. In this study, the effects on SF degradation associated with exposure to oven temperature during column transit, passage through the split/splitless injector, and through the transfer line to the mass spectrometer were investigated. Massive degradation was observed during column transit when the oven temperature exceeded 150 °C. Degradation during the passage through the injector increased with temperature, from 150 °C to 250 °C, and with decreasing split ratio, from 100:1 to 20:1. Conventional splitless conditions with the injector temperature set at 250 °C resulted in a degradation > 60%. Operating the GC-MS system with oven temperature below 150 °C prior to SF elution, an injector at 225 °C and a split ratio of 20:1, SF degradation was reduced to less than 1%. Under these optimized analytical conditions, the concentration of free SF in two broccoli-based dietary supplements was estimated based on external calibration and using 2,6-dimethylphenyl isothiocyanate as an internal standard. The GC-MS method proved to be a valuable tool for the quality evaluation of SF-labeled supplements integrated with the official EU ISO 9167:2019 HPLC-PDA glucosinolates analysis.

Essential oils (EOs) from 6 genotypes of rosemary of different geographical origins were subjected to sensory, GC-Olfactometry (GC-O) as well as GC-MS analyses, to pinpoint odor-active compounds. A single EO sample was analyzed for each genotype. The quantitative descriptive sensory analysis highlighted significant differences among the essential oils in terms of rosemary, eucalyptus/balsamic, and fruity note intensities. By GC-O, 32 odor-active compounds were detected, 28 of which were identified. Flavor dilution factors (FD), determined by using the aroma extract dilution analysis method, and Odor Active Values, calculated after quantification by GC-MS analysis, consistently indicated that the compounds with the greatest impact on the overall odor were 1,8-cineole, α-pinene, 1-hexen-3-one, β-damascenone, 1-octen-3-one, linalool, and fenchol. Four out of these 7 compounds, being present at very low concentrations, had never been reported in rosemary EO (1-hexen-3-one and β-damascenone) or had previously been detected at trace level (1-octen-3-one and fenchol). These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the molecular basis of rosemary EO aroma. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The findings of this study indicate which compounds should be prioritized in future investigations of rosemary EO's olfactory properties. This information could help emphasize the sensory excellence of genotypes with distinct geographical origins and enhance the sensory attributes of rosemary EO for use in flavoring and food preservation.

Featured Application This study provides information on the effectiveness of asparaginase treatment in reducing acrylamide levels in wholemeal wheat shortbread biscuits, indicating the possibility of secondary effects on sensory quality and therefore suggesting further investigation into this aspect.Abstract The effects of asparaginase treatment and conditions of its use (enzyme dose and dough resting time) on the formation of heat-induced contaminants, namely, acrylamide (ACR) and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), were investigated in wholemeal wheat biscuits. In addition, potential impacts on sensory-related quality attributes were assessed through instrumental analysis of colour, texture, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Three levels of asparaginase addition (100, 300, and 500 ASNU kg-1 flour) were tested and compared with an untreated control, with and without the application of a 15 min dough resting step. Results confirmed the effectiveness of asparaginase in reducing ACR levels in the final biscuits, showing a dose-dependent response with reductions of up to 68% at 500 ASNU kg-1 flour. A dough resting step tend to further lower ACR content. In contrast, asparaginase treatment did not exert a consistent effect on HMF formation, whereas dough resting tended to decrease it. Moreover, asparaginase addition at the highest dose reduced the level of several Maillard reaction-derived VOCs by approximately 30%. Overall, asparaginase treatment markedly reduced ACR formation while causing changes in some odour-active compounds in biscuits. Further sensory evaluation will be necessary to determine whether these changes are perceptible and may influence consumer acceptance.

The volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the leaves and flowers from wild populations of sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.) collected from nine coastal regions in Italy and Corsica were analysed using HS-SPME/GC-MS. In addition, to identify sea fennel key odorants, GC-Olfactometry analyses were carried out on essential oils (EOs) distilled from sea fennel flowers, leaves and crop residue. Remarkable variation in VOCs composition was noted across geographic origins, revealing two major chemotypes in both flowers and leaves. These chemotypes were distinguished by dominant compounds: limonene and thymol methyl ether/gamma-terpinene. Notably, these chemotypes corresponded to the two sides of the Italian peninsula, with limonene prevalent in populations on the East coast and thymol methyl ether/gamma-terpinene on the West coast. GC-O analysis identified thymol methyl ether (with a thyme-like odour note) and gamma-terpinene (terpene-like note) as key odorants across all sea fennel EOs. beta-Damascenone, with a honey-like note, also contributed strongly but exclusively to the odour of leaves EO. In contrast, other major components such as limonene and dill apiol exhibited minimal to negligible impact on the overall odour. Additional important odour-active compounds included alpha-pinene, 1-octen-3-one, E-2-decenal, and several other yet unidentified compounds. The marked differences in the levels of major constituents and key odorants suggest considerable variation in the flavour quality and biological activities of sea fennel leaves and EOs across geographic origins. These findings underscore the need for further sensory and biochemical characterization of the considered wild sea fennel populations.

Kimchi, a traditional fermented product made primarily with Chinese cabbage, develops its characteristic flavor through microbial activity and a variety of ingredients. This study explores the incorporation of sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L.), a halophytic plant rich in bioactive compounds and known for its distinctive aroma, into kimchi. Two fermentation methods were compared: spontaneous fermentation and fermentation using a defined starter culture of four lactic acid bacteria strains. Fermentation was conducted at 4 °C for 26 days, with samples monitored for up to 150 days. Parameters analyzed included pH, titratable acidity, microbial counts, organic acid concentrations, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and sensory attributes. In the early stages, notable differences in acidity, microbial populations, and VOCs were observed between the two methods, but these differences diminished over time. Sensory analysis indicated similar overall characteristics for both prototypes, although the sea fennel’s aroma and fibrous texture remained perceptible at day 150. VOCs analysis revealed that the fermentation time significantly affected the composition of key aroma compounds, contributing to the final sensory profile. Sea fennel played a key role in shaping the VOC profile and imparting a distinctive aromatic quality. Both fermentation methods led to similar enhancements in flavor and product quality. These findings support the use of sea fennel as an aromatic ingredient in fermented vegetables and highlight the importance of fermentation optimization.

Cultivated rocket (Eruca sativa Mill.) is a leafy vegetable grown all over the World and with various food, medicinal and industrial applications. In this study, 90 accessions have been investigated for their genomic diversity and for the content of ascorbic acid and main sugars compounds. Next generation sequencing was implemented for the investigation of genetic diversity allowing to detect over 30,000 markers. The ancestry analysis revealed geographic footprints by detecting subpopulations with different origins that separated the European, Asian and African germplasm. Within the Asian gene pool, a close grouping of germplasm from India and Pakistan was found, whilst for the European germplasm the Italian accessions represented the entire diversity. Biochemical analysis showed a great variability in the bioactive component content of leaves. The average ascorbic acid concentration was 2.04 mg/g fresh weight (f.w.) with values ranging from 0.19 to 3.58 mg/g f.w. Similarly, the average sugar content was 7.89 mg/g f.w., with a range of 1.18 to 14.57 mg/g f.w. The metabolic diversity of the collection highlighted a greater variability among the genotypes selected in the Mediterranean area compared to those with Asian and African origins. This research aims to provide new information towards breeding for quality of Eruca.

Among the strategies proposed to reduce the formation of acrylamide in bakery products, the use of asparaginase is considered one of the most promising, also due to its limited impact on the sensory quality of the final product. Asparagine, the key precursor of acrylamide that is selectively hydrolysed by the asparaginase treatment, is generally not considered a major contributor to the overall flavour and colour of baked foods. This study investigates the effect of three addition levels of the enzyme asparaginase (500, 750, 1000 ASNU compared to a not added control) and three different preparation conditions (without resting time and with 15 min resting time at 20 °C or 50 °C) on asparagine content in the dough and on the formation of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and colour of shortbread biscuits. Results showed that the addition of asparaginase, at all levels, markedly reduced the asparagine content in the dough, with limited effects on the VOC profile and colour. The examined preparation conditions significantly affected the VOC profile: the application of a resting time at 20 °C tended to promote the formation of VOCs through lipid oxidation while reducing the level of many MR-related VOCs. This last effect seemed to parallel the slight reduction of the browning index observed when the resting time was applied. Results suggest that the use of asparaginase does not markedly affect the VOC profile of shortbread biscuits, thus confirming its limited effects on sensory-related quality attributes of baked foods.

The Maillard reaction (MR) is one of the main reactions that occurs during the thermal processing of food. It contributes positively to the flavor, aroma, and color of food but also produces harmful by-products, including acrylamide and advanced glycation end products (AGEs). Bakery products are major staples consumed daily by people from all walks of life and of all ages; the identification of strategies to hamper acrylamide formation in bread and bread-like products is thus crucial for public health. Several strategies have been proposed to inhibit the MR in food processing, including biochemical approaches such as the use of enzymes; innovative technologies such as ohmic heating, pulsed electric field, high pressure processing, or encapsulation of metal ions; and the chemical modification of reactants, intermediates, or products of MR. Recently, phenolic compounds have been reported to have an inhibitory effect on the formation of harmful by-products resulting from the MR. The aim of this paper is, therefore, to provide a state-of-the-art overview of the use of phenolic compounds in the formulation of bakery products to inhibit the MR. A systematic review of the most up-to-date scientific literature was thus performed. It emerged that the inhibitory action was mainly investigated in bread. Phenolic extracts and powders obtained from plant-based foods have been included in the formulation of bakery products. The effect of pure phenolic standards was also considered.

Two cultivars of wild rocket (Diplotaxis tenuifolia), cv. Denver and Marte, were subjected to chemical determination of flavour-related constituents, sensory descriptive analysis, and measurement of liking by consumer test. Consumers evaluated rocket leaves both as a single ingredient and in a recipe formed by a roll of bresaola with also Grana Padano cheese. Sensory analyses showed that Marte was characterized by a more intense bitterness, hotness, and pungency, which corresponded to a higher total GSL content, mainly due to a higher level of dimeric 4-mercaptobutyl GSL. Five clusters of consumers were identified based on their liking scores. When tasting rocket leaves as a single ingredient, three clusters showed a higher liking for the milder cultivar, one cluster showed an opposite preference, while flavour attributes, such as bitterness and hotness, appeared as the main drivers of liking. Differences in liking were no longer found between the two cultivars when rocket leaves were evaluated in the recipe. Therefore, as rocket leaves are generally consumed as a part of a recipe with other ingredients instead of as a single ingredient, in the assessment of consumer preferences, it should not be neglected the influence of the way in which the product is consumed.

Several meta-analyses have consistently demonstrated that the consumption of an adequate level of fruit and vegetables (F&V), along with other food groups, is associated with a low risk of all-cause mortality, and, as such, represents one of the major modifiable risk factors related to the growing burden of Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs). The aim of the present narrative review was to provide an up-to-date analysis of systematic reviews and meta-analyses published in the past five years, dealing with the effects of F&V consumption on human health, focusing on specific pathologies, such as total mortality, cancer, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), type 2 diabetes, intestinal inflammation, and bone and respiratory illnesses. The results of our evaluation confirmed and consolidated the protective role of F&V consumption against the development of NCDs, especially CVDs. However, the need to corroborate existing evidence and clarify the role of confounding factors by performing additional randomized control trials and adopting more standardized approaches and study designs also emerged. Moreover, evaluating the protective role of fruit and vegetables as separate food categories appeared to be one of the most interesting areas to investigate in the near future. Overall, these outcomes could help in addressing future research to better establish a causal relationship between F&V consumption and human health.

Ninety-five rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus Schleid.) genotypes, representing 24 wild populations, collected in different geographical areas in Italy and then cultivated under homogeneous environmental conditions, were characterised for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and three main non-volatile phenolic diterpenes (carnosic acid, carnosol) and acids (rosmarinic acid). Cluster analysis of chemical data highlighted the occurrence of three main groups of populations: one with high levels of verbenone, α-pinene, bornyl acetate, carnosic acid and carnosol, a second one with relatively high levels of camphor and a third one with high levels of 1,8-cineole, β-pinene and sesquiterpenes. This clustering was consistent with geographic origin and previous genetic characterisation of the same populations. Correlation analysis suggested that levels of the key antioxidant carnosic acid were associated to levels of the key aroma compound verbenone. The observed diversity may be exploited in breeding programs to develop lines and designing products with improved flavour quality and functional properties.

The remarkable biological activities of oregano essential oils (EOs) have recently prompted a host of studies aimed at exploring their potential innovative applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries. The chemical composition and biological activities of EOs from two Origanum vulgare genotypes, widely cultivated in Sicily and not previously studied for their biological properties, were characterized. Plants of the two genotypes, belonging to the carvacrol (CAR) and thymol (THY) chemotypes and grown in different cultivation environments, were considered for this study. The chemical profiles, including the determination of enantiomeric distribution, of the EOs, obtained by hydrodistillation from dried leaves and flowers, were investigated by GC–MS. Biological activity was evaluated as antimicrobial properties against different pathogen indicator strains, while intestinal barrier integrity, reduction in pathogen adhesion and anti-inflammatory actions were assayed in the intestinal Caco-2 cell line. The chemical profile of the CAR genotype was less complex and characterized by higher levels of the most active compound, i.e., carvacrol, when compared to the THY genotype. The enantiomeric distribution of chiral constituents did not vary across genotypes, while being markedly different from that observed in Origanum vulgare genotypes from other geographical origins. In general, all EOs showed high antimicrobial activity, both in vitro and in a food matrix challenge test. Representative EOs from the two genotypes resulted not altering epithelial monolayer sealing only for concentrations lower than 0.02%, were able to reduce the adhesion of selected pathogens, but did not exert relevant anti-inflammatory effects. These results suggest their potential use as control agents against a wide spectrum of foodborne pathogens.

The aim of the study was to investigate how essential oil production and associated chemical composition and related biological activity could be influenced by different cultivation treatments and distillation methods. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (fennel), Origanum vulgare L. (oregano) and Thymus vulgaris L. (thyme) were cultivated in absence of any fertilizer (control) and in presence of three different fertilizers: a chemical one with augmented mineral phosphorus and potassium, a second added with hydrolyzed organic substance and mineral phosphorus and potassium (organic-mineral) and a third one treated with a high content of organic nitrogen of protein origin (organic). The plants were subjected to steam distillation using two modalities, recycled and continuous, to obtain 32 essential oil samples. Chemical composition analysis was performed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; in vitro antimicrobial activity was evaluated using a broth microdilution method. In general, the recycled distillation method appeared to have a slightly higher yield than the continuous method. The "mineral" and "organic-mineral" treatments resulted in a higher yield compared to the "organic" or "control" treatments, and this was particularly evident in the recycled method. The "control" plants had a lower yield of essential oils. Anethole (13.9-59.5%) and estragole (13.4-52.2%) were the main constituents of the fennel oils; p-cymene and its derivatives carvacrol and thymol were the main constituents of the oregano and thyme samples. The antimicrobial activity of the thyme oils on Staphylococcus aureus ranged from 0.31 to 0.16% (v/v); a lower effect of the oregano samples and no activity of the fennel samples were observed. The essential oils failed to inhibit the growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains.

The Italian espresso coffee is a very popular drink worldwide. Roasting of coffee grains represents a key step in the development of the beverage characteristics and aroma. A coffee blend (80% Coffea arabica and 20% canephora) of a well-known Italian coffee firm underwent 3 roasting conditions (standard with end temperature of 216 °C, below standard with end temperature of 206 °C and over standard with end temperature of 223 °C) to study the effects of processing conditions on the chemical composition of the coffee powder and on the chemical and sensory characteristics of the espresso beverage. Proximate composition, polar and semi-polar metabolome (amino acids and aliphatic acids), chlorogenic acids, and volatile organic compounds were determined in the powder and beverage by means of standard methods, HPLC-ESI(±)-HRMS, HPLC–PDA/ESI–MS and HS-SPME/GC–MS respectively. Changes induced in the powder and beverage by roasting conditions are described with heatmaps and correlation networks between polar metabolites and sensory characteristics of the espresso beverage are reported. The concentration of chlorogenic acids is inversely proportional to the roasting temperature and the lower is the roasting temperature, the higher is the acid taste in the espresso. Some volatile organic compounds might be analytical markers of the strength of the roasting process. Cream and body of drink are increased as roasting temperature increases.

The aim of this study was the chemical, microbiological, textural, and sensory characterization of pilot-scale prototypes of an Italian ewe's raw milk cheese (Caciofiore) curdled with commercial Cynara cardunculus rennet, used as a control, and crude extracts obtained from flowers of either spontaneous or cultivated Onopordum tauricum. Hence, the control and experimental cheese prototypes produced in two rounds of cheesemaking trials were assayed, at the end of their 60-day maturation, for the following features: pH, titratable acidity, dry matter, fat, total and soluble nitrogen (TN and SN, respectively), ash, salt, protein, lactose, viable plate counts and composition of the bacterial and fungal populations, color, texture, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and olfactory attributes by sensory analysis (the latter for the sole prototypes curdled with the commercial rennet and the extract obtained from cultivated O. tauricum). The data overall collected showed a very low impact of the type of thistle rennet on the analyzed cheese traits, with significant differences being exclusively found for SN/TN%, titratable acidity, color, and adhesiveness. By contrast, a higher impact of the cheesemaking round was seen, with significant differences being observed for salt content, load of presumptive lactobacilli, thermophilic cocci, and Escherichia coli, and levels of the following VOCs: 2,3-butanedione, 2-pentanone, 1-butanol, 2-heptanone, 3-methyl-1-butanol, 2-heptanol, 2-nonanone, dimethyl trisulfide, 2-methyl propanoic acid, butanoic acid, and 3-methyl butanoic acid. Sensory analysis revealed a strong ewe's cheese odor, accompanied by other olfactory notes, such as pungent, sour curd, sweet, and Parmesan cheese-like notes, in all the analysed cheese prototypes. Moreover, key odor active compounds, including butanoic acid, ethyl butanoate, 2,3-butanedione, 1-octen-3-one, and dimethyl trisulfide, were identified by GC-olfactometry analysis. Regarding the odor attributes as determined by sensory analysis, again the type of rennet had an almost negligible impact, with significant differences being only perceived for 1 or 2 out of 20 odor attributes, depending on the analytical conditions applied. Although some aspects deserve further investigation, the results herein collected confirm that O. tauricum can be regarded as an alternative source of thistle rennet for the manufacture of Caciofiore cheese, and more in general, Mediterranean ewe's milk cheeses.

The fresh-cut industry supplies the food market with healthy fresh fruit and vegetables and, in that way, may contribute to improve the nutritional status of the general population. On the other hand, over the last few years increasing concerns have been raised regarding the environmental impact of the fresh-cut industry, human health risks from exposure to disinfection by-products found in fresh-cut products and chlorine-based disinfection treatments during produce processing. This review provides a comprehensive view of the main interlinked aspects related to food safety and environmental impact of processing of fresh-cut vegetables. Advantages and downsides of the mainstream disinfection strategy, based on the use of chlorine-related disinfecting agents, along with some alternative treatments close to a wide commercial application, are discussed. Limitation in the application of these strategies to processing of organic fresh-cut produce are also highlighted, examining the specific environmental and food safety problems in the organic sector. Areas where lack of available information hinders at present a clear understanding of priorities of research and action are pointed out. Innovative conceptual tools are proposed to address these multiple and interlinking issues and to overcome limitations of currently available technologies. A comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach is suggested to move toward a more safe and environmentally sustainable production of fresh-cut products.

Nutritional and sensory quality of wild rocket leaves (Diplotaxis tenuifolia L., cv. Grazia) subjected to commercial processing and packaging were monitored for up to 7 days of cold storage and compared with the quality of unprocessed and unpackaged leaves from the same harvest. Nutritional quality was assessed by determining total phenolics, vitamin C and folate content. Sensory quality was assessed by quantitative descriptive analysis, combined with analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). No change in vitamin C and folate content was observed in processed rocket leaves up to 7 days of cold storage, whereas unprocessed leaves showed a marked loss of both of them at the end of the storage time (52% and 71%, respectively). Total phenol content decreased during cold storage in both rocket leaves samples, but at a lower extent in the processed leaves. While most sensory attributes showed significant degradation during storage in both processed and unprocessed leaves, at the end of the storage time processed leaves had better retained some appearance (colour, turgidity, integrity), flavour (bitterness and bitter persistence) and texture (firmness and chewing consistency) attributes of the fresh leaves. A marked decrease during storage of some potent key odorants, such as (Z)-3-hexenal, (E)-3-hexenal, as well as 1-penten-3-one, corresponded to the weakening of fresh herbaceous/green sensory notes and pungency in both rocket leaves samples. Commercial processing and packaging operations proved to be effective at better preserving nutritional and sensory quality of wild rocket leaves and, thus, at prolonging their shelf life.

Summary Packages of ready‐to‐eat (RTE) wild rocket and lettuce baby leaves were subjected during 8 days of cold storage to a chronic temperature abuse (CTA) at sub‐optimal storage temperature (10 °C) or to a short‐term (6 h) abuse at ambient temperature (STA) to evaluate the impact of two temperature abuse scenarios on gas composition within the packages, leaf sensory quality and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). In both species, the CTA scenario had a markedly higher impact on gas composition, sensory quality and off‐odour formation than the STA, and the limit of sensory acceptability was reached in the CTA scenario 4 days or more earlier than in the STA. Sulphur compounds were the main responsible for off‐odour perception in both leafy salads. Results from the present study may be useful in the assessment of critical points in the cold chain of RTE fresh produce and in prioritising actions towards improved cold‐chain management.