Heavy metal contamination in soils poses serious ecological and food-chain risks, particularly in ultramafic landscapes where total and bioavailable nickel (Ni) concentrations are naturally high. This study investigated the mineralogical and chemical properties of clays derived from different parent materials to evaluate their capacity to immobilize Ni and reduce heavy metal toxicity to agricultural plants. Soil samples from two ultramafic regions (Rrajce and Prrenjas) and one non-ultramafic site (Durres) were analyzed for texture, pH, organic matter, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and mineralogy (XRD). Smectite-dominated Prrenjas clay exhibited abundant interlayer and edge sorption sites, enabling rapid chemisorption and immobilization, with similar to 89% of Ni within 240 min when added to Rrajce soil. In comparison, Durres clay-containing only 30% smectite and dominated by illite, chlorite, kaolinite, and minor serpentine-immobilized only similar to 64%. These kinetic and mineralogical contrasts demonstrate that expansive smectite clay types (e.g., smectite), rather than total clay content, are the principal drivers of Ni adsorption capacity and reaction rates. A pot experiment further showed that amending Ni-rich Rrajce soil with smectite-rich clay (1.07%-3.2%) significantly reduced Ni accumulation in alfalfa (Medicago sativa) by 20%-45%, accompanied by a 2.6%-16% decline in the plant-available fraction of soil Ni. These results highlight strong links between clay mineralogy, Ni bioavailability, and plant uptake. Overall, the findings provide new insights into Ni mobility in ultramafic soils and demonstrate that smectite-rich clay amendments represent an effective, low-cost, and environmentally friendly (low-impact) strategy for reducing Ni bioavailability and mitigating risks to agricultural systems and food crops.

This experimental study analyses the extent of chemo-mineralogical changes that occur when a building stone encounters a cycling isothermal treatment at 600 °C. Four carbonate and two silicate European building stones were analysed in their fresh quarried and thermally treated conditions by means of colour measurements, in situ X-ray diffraction (XRD), and optical microscopy. Furthermore, powdered samples were characterised by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, simultaneous thermal analysis, and cycling thermogravimetry (TG). The in situ XRD spectra revealed a surface-limited phase transformation of solid calcite and dolomite under isothermal conditions during the first 10 min at 600 °C and 500 °C, respectively. The onset of thermal decomposition and extent of phase transformation were governed by the microstructure of the solid samples. Inter- and intragranular microcracks are induced to varying degrees, and their incidence depended on the stone’s microstructure. Discolouration indicated a transformation of minor elements across the entire analysed sample volumes. Kaolinite was preserved even after three hours of thermal treatment at its dehydroxylation temperature due to its sheltering in confined pore spaces. Mass loss was more pronounced when cyclic treatment was employed compared to a non-periodic treatment, as determined by a TG analysis performed at same time intervals. Examining the chemo-mineralogical and microstructural changes caused by heat treatment allows us to study how and if regaining mechanical strength and restoring physical properties are possible for purposes of heritage restoration after fire damage.

The mountain forests of Northern Patagonia represent a steep hydroclimatic gradient, with a udic to xeric soil water balance from west to east, alongside pronounced elevation gradients. This study aimed to elucidate forest soil formation along these interacting gradients and to disentangle the various influencing factors. We collected 45 soil profile and 66 topsoil samples along 16 elevational transects along two west-to-east valley transects. Based on standard chemical soil analyses, 24 profiles were further characterised by selective dissolution analysis of short-range order minerals and PO4-retention, and 5 profiles were analysed for bulk and clay mineralogical composition. We found distinct patterns of soil development along the hydroclimatic gradient, along the elevation (thermal) gradient, and with changing litter quality characterised by the C:N ratio. The distinct plant species composition of the forest types plays a significant role in shaping soil properties through the C:N ratio of the ecto-organic layer and topsoil. Volcanic ash deposition regularly rejuvenates soils, particularly in the humid west, influencing the pedogenetic development. We observed a less pronounced expression of andic properties (e.g. higher bulk density, less amorphous Fe and Al, less PO4-retention) in the east, and attributed this partly to aeolian deposition of non-volcanic material, reflected by a significant share of mica, quartz and K-feldspar. These factors lead to a shift in the reference soil groups, from Andosols to Cambisols. Our findings reveal a complex interplay between climate, vegetation, and volcanic deposition, which has implications for understanding pedogenetic development and the effects of climate change in the Northern Patagonian forests.

Authigenic Mg-calcite and dolomite are currently forming in Lake Neusiedl (Neuhuber et al. 2024), an episodically evaporative shallow lake in eastern Austria (Draganits et al., 2022). Radiocarbon dating by Neuhuber et al. (2024) revealed average ages of 200 to 3700 cal yr BP, reflecting extremely slow precipitation rates. The relatively high ages of fine-grained crystals agree with high radiocarbon ages of dolomite from Deep Springs Lake (California; Peterson et al., 1963). Such comparably high ages are commonly explained by the slow formation of dolomite due to its high kinetic barrier. Close examination by transmission electron microscopy (Meister et al., 2023) revealed concentric zones of Mg-rich carbonate replacing less Mg-rich precursors. However, no considerable progress in ripening has been noticed in older layers buried below 30 cm depth, which are no longer affected by sediment reworking (Fussmann et al., 2023). It appears that ripening of the metastable phase to the stable phase does not occur as long as the porewater remains supersaturated with respect to a metastable Mg-calcite phase. Ripening of Mg-calcite to protodolomite and ordered dolomite may however occur at the sediment-water interface, where the bottom water becomes episodically undersaturated with respect to Mg-calcite. Fussmann et al. (2023) observed a drop in pH in the benthic boundary layer, which can be caused by the release of acidic fermentation products and aerobic respiration.Ripening due to episodic undersaturation of water with respect to a metastable Mg-calcite phase is consistent with a model of dolomite formation under conditions fluctuating between supersaturation and undersaturation with respect to the metastable phase, conforming to Ostwald’s step rule. This effect has recently been reproduced using density function theory (Kim et al., 2023). This model could also explain the formation of nano-domains of ordered dolomite in coherent crystallographic orientation within the protodolomite due to oscillating conditions at the recrystallization front (Meister et al., 2023). The case of authigenic carbonate formation in Lake Neusiedl exemplifies that the model of dolomite formation under fluctuating hydrochemical conditions is well applicable to natural conditions in modern, as well as ancient, environments. Draganits, E. et al. (2022) Lake Neusiedl Area: A Particular Lakescape at the Boundary Between Alps and Pannonian Basin. In: Embleton-Hamann, C. (ed.), Landscapes and Landforms of Austria. World Geomorphological Landscapes. Springer, Cham, pp. 207-222.Fussmann, D. et al. (2020) Authigenic formation of Mg-Ca-carbonates in shallow alkaline water in Lake Neusiedl, Austria. Biogeosciences 17, 2085–2106.Kim, J. et al. (2023) Dissolution enables dolomite crystal growth near ambient conditions. Science 382, 915–920.Meister, P. et al. (2023) Nanoscale pathway of modern dolomite formation in a shallow, alkaline lake. Cryst. Growth Des. 23, 3202–3212.Neuhuber, S. et al. (2024) Radiocarbon ages of microcrystalline authigenic carbonate in Lake Neusiedl (Austria) suggest millennial-scale growth of Mg-calcite and protodolomite. Sedimentology in press.Peterson, M.N.A. et al. (1963) Radiocarbon studies of recent dolomite from Deep Spring Lake, California. J. Geophys. Res. 68, 6493–6505.

Chilean volcanic soils, such as Andisols and Ultisols, cover much of the country’s arable land and are valued for their unique mineralogical characteristics. This study investigated the effects of land-use change from native forest to silvoagricultural systems on pedogenesis across four volcanic soil types: Acrudoxic Duraquand, Duric Hapludand, Typic Paleudult, and Typic Hapludult. Morphological analyses revealed that soils under agricultural uses have undergone changes in soil structure in addition to a loss in organic horizons. Significant differences were noted in physical and chemical properties, including bulk density, soil organic carbon (SOC), pH, and extractable aluminum. Andisols under croplands displayed higher bulk densities, lower SOC, and decreased extractable aluminum contents compared to those under native forests. Principal component analyses (PCA) revealed a distinct separation between land uses based on andic properties, suggesting, in some cases, a partial loss of these distinctive characteristics. Mineralogical analyses detected allophane, gibbsite, kaolinite, and hydroxy-interlayered minerals; however, no direct evidence was found for crystalline clay mineralogical transformations due to land-use change. Furthermore, while future studies would benefit from a finer-scale soil classification to account for the geomorphological variability of southern Chile, the present findings already highlight clear impacts of land-use change on pedogenesis in volcanic soils. Keywords: Volcanic soils, Land-use change, Pedogenesis, Andic properties, Soil mineralogy.

ABSTRACTAuthigenic Mg‐calcite and dolomite are frequently observed in restricted, evaporative environments, such as lagoon or lake systems, but their formation is difficult to capture due to slow growth rates. Lake Neusiedl, an alkaline and subhaline lake with a mean water depth of 0.7 m in Austria, offers a natural system to study the precipitation of Ca‐Mg‐carbonate phases, which occur as fine‐grained, unconsolidated and largely homogenized mud. To elucidate the timing and formation mechanisms of these authigenic carbonate phases, the mineralogical and isotopic composition and radiocarbon age of different sediment grain‐size fractions from <0.2 to >3.0 μm were analysed. X‐ray diffraction analyses show two broad peaks of Mg‐calcite and protodolomite (lacking ordering peaks), suggesting that the carbonates are authigenic rather than detrital in origin. Calibrated carbon‐14 ages range between 200 cal yr bp and 3700 cal yr bp. The linear correlation of age and grain size suggests a very slow growth rate of single crystals of 0.23 to 0.60 μm/ka. These rates suggest an extremely slow sedimentation rate in a shallow lake that existed during most of the Holocene. The higher abundance of protodolomite in older grain fractions, in contrast to the presence of high‐Mg calcite in the youngest fractions, suggests a growth succession where high‐Mg calcite develops first and subsequently transforms into protodolomite. Much higher ages of 6 cal ka bp to 15 cal ka bp are measured in carbonates of lake deposits exposed on land, in a section north‐west of the recent lake, suggesting a growth rate of those carbonate minerals of 0.13 μm/ka. These time constraints further suggest that some carbonate grains could already have nucleated from lake water before or during the last glacial maximum, although under slightly different hydrochemical conditions.

The scientific world of the nineteenth century was shaped by far-reaching discoveries, expeditions, travel and collection activities as well as by the development of extensive natural scientific social networking. During the 1840s, Dominik Bilimek (1813–1884) arose as a key personality in European natural sciences, with a significant impact on the biological, geoscientific and even archaeological communities. The Bilimek collection at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna encompasses thousands of specimens and provides a large number of original labels with date, locality and companions in the field. This set of collection labels was analysed qualitatively and quantitatively with respect to its historical value to increase our knowledge about the explorer's life and his social network. The study also focuses on Bilimek's so far unknown social links, which were recovered by the processing of the collection, probably resulting in the use of these data for a social network analysis of a nineteenth-century scientific network.

The syntypes of Carychium reticulatum Hauffen, 1856 and Carychium bidentatum Hauffen, 1856, thought to be lost to science, have been rediscovered in a recent inventory of the shell collection of Domink Bilimek (1813–1884) at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences in Vienna, Austria (BOKU). In this work, we present (1) the historical context of the Dominik Bilimek and Heinrich (also: Henrik) Hauffen collections and (2) provide a contemporary image dataset of Hauffen’s original material while considering today’s taxonomic understanding of the genus Zospeum. We clarify the taxonomic status of the syntypes by using light microscopy, Scanning Electron Microcopy (SEM) and 3D X-ray Micro-CT data in conjunction with Hauffen’s original illustrations and compare them to contemporary investigations of their closest congeners. Analysis of Zospeum reticulatum (Hauffen, 1856) is supported by historical documentation from Heinrich Hauffen’s original annotations and Bilimek’s diary entries, as well as from individual collection labels in Hauffen’s own script (verified by archive material from the Archive of the National Museum of Slovenia, NMS). Hauffen’s descriptions are based on apertural morphology and shell microstructure. Our re-investigation of Zospeum reticulatum provides corroborating evidence supporting its assignment to Zospeum spelaeum (Rossmaessler, 1839) while that of Carychium bidentatum corroborates its status as junior synonym of Zospeum costatum (Freyer, 1855).

Climate and parent material type are important soil forming factors. On Santa Cruz Island, Galapagos, the climate shows a pronounced altitudinal zonation from arid lowlands to humid highlands, and the volcanic parent materials, although chemically rather uniform (basaltic), show pronounced differences in porosity, including dense lava flows and very vesicular scoria deposits. In this study, the effect of these two driving factors on pedogenesis was investigated. Our results show that pH and effective cation exchange capacity (CECeff) decreased, but po-tential cation exchange capacity (CECpot), phosphate retention, and Al-o +1/2Fe(o) as well as Al-p/Al-o increased with increasing elevation regardless of parent material type. Conversely, topsoil bulk density (BD) and organic carbon (OC) content did not show a clear altitudinal pattern on lava but decreased (BD) or increased (OC) with increasing elevation on scoria. Clay mineralogy changed from minor (2:1-type) mixed layer phases in the low-elevation arid zone to vermiculitic (lava) or kaolinitic mineralogy (scoria) at mid-elevation (humid), whereas short-range-order (SRO) minerals (allophane and ferrihydrite) dominated in the colloidal fraction of both lava -and scoria-derived soils under very humid conditions at high elevation. The sequence of soil types developed on lava was, with increasing elevation, Cambisol -> Phaeozem -> Andosol, while on scoria it was Regosol -> Umbrisol -> Andosol. Our results show that climate is the overriding factor controlling the major mineralogical and pedogenic changes in the studied environment; however, the higher porosity of the scoria parent materials considerably accelerated weathering and pedogenic processes compared to the denser lavas. Our study highlights the importance of the parent material's physical nature in modulating rates of chemical weathering and pedogenesis.

Phosphorus (P) is an essential and often limiting element that could play a crucial role in terrestrial ecosystem responses to climate warming. However, it has yet remained unclear how different P cycling processes are affected by warming. Here we investigate the response of soil P pools and P cycling processes in a mountain forest after 14 years of soil warming (+4 °C). Long-term warming decreased soil total P pools, likely due to higher outputs of P from soils by increasing net plant P uptake and downward transportation of colloidal and particulate P. Warming increased the sorption strength to more recalcitrant soil P fractions (absorbed to iron oxyhydroxides and clays), thereby further reducing bioavailable P in soil solution. As a response, soil microbes enhanced the production of acid phosphatase, though this was not sufficient to avoid decreases of soil bioavailable P and microbial biomass P (and biotic phosphate immobilization). This study therefore highlights how long-term soil warming triggers changes in biotic and abiotic soil P pools and processes, which can potentially aggravate the P constraints of the trees and soil microbes and thereby negatively affect the C sequestration potential of these forests.

Terra rossa soils on the Istrian peninsula are generally considered polygenetic relict soils. They overlie and mark the youngest subaerial unconformity in the northwestern part of the Adriatic Carbonate Platform and are susceptible to erosional and redepositional processes. Terra rossa soils represent a valuable archive of information that can be used to understand present and past soil formation processes in the context of climate variability and landscape dynamics, especially in low-lying parts of the karst landscape where thicker deposits are typically found. We studied a 3 m thick terra rossa profile in a karst depression on the northernmost part of the southwestern Istrian planation surface and analysed the micromorphology, physical/chemical properties, geochemistry, bulk and clay mineralogy, and composition of heavy and light mineral fractions. The profile shows several signs of colluviation and polygenesis with clay distribution along the profile, clearly indicating lithic discontinuities. Kaolinisation, along with iron oxide formation, is the dominant process in the studied profile. Ferralitisation and lessivage processes were diagnosed throughout the profile, with intense clay translocation occurring despite the extremely stable soil microaggregates. In accordance with the WRB system, the profile is classified as Rhodic Lixisol (Clayic, Aric, Cutanic). This implies that some terra rossa soils, previously classified as e.g. Cambisols or Luvisols, might actually be Lixisols or other (sub-)tropical soils (e.g. Nitisols), in which relict properties are preserved in the present climate. The finding of a Lixisol in the study area indicates the old age of the surface of the karst depression and provides the first data on the burial history of the southwestern Istrian planation surface. We suggest the older Quaternary interglacials, the mid-Piacenzian Warm Period (Pliocene) and the Miocene Climatic Optimum as favourable periods for the formation of the studied soil.

BackgroundGlyphosate (GLP) is a widely used herbicide with possible adverse effects on human health and the environment. In soils, GLP strongly adsorbs on clay-sized minerals, depending on pH, the amount of organic carbon, as well as the contents and properties of Al and Fe oxyhydroxides and clay minerals. Many clay-sized minerals have already been investigated regarding GLP adsorption behavior, but information on minerals commonly found in volcanic soils is still lacking. AimThe aim of this study was to investigate for the first time the pH-dependent adsorption of GLP on allophane and halloysite, typical minerals found in volcanic soils. MethodsGLP adsorption was studied in batch experiments at three pH values (5, 6, and 7). Synthetic allophanes with two different initial Al:Si ratios (1.4 and 1.8) and a halloysite were used as adsorbents. ResultsThe adsorption capacity (AC) increased with rising Al:Si ratio and decreasing pH. The AC of allophane was significantly higher than that of halloysite. GLP adsorption on allophane was larger than that reported for other clay minerals and Al and Fe oxyhydroxides, especially at low pH. The AC of halloysite was higher than reported for most other clay minerals. ConclusionDifferent mineral formation pathways in volcanic soils, notably the formation of halloysite versus allophanes, strongly affect the soils' retention capacity for GLP. The high AC of allophanes may induce the low mobility of GLP in allophane-containing soils. Long-term use of GLP may accumulate the herbicide in these soils with potential effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services.

The Malše River, on the border between Austria and the Czech Republic, contains one of the last remaining freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera) populations on the Bohemian Massif. Evidence from field studies indicated that landscape evolutionary processes changed the boundary conditions for river channel formations, especially in those parts where the remaining mussels, probably also self-reproducing to a limited extent, were documented. The aim of the present work was to study these possible palaeo-impacts through (i) the analysis of the terrain data and accompanying hydrodynamic-numerical modelling and (ii) sediment sampling of the main channel and the surrounding floodplains at the reach and catchment scales. The results indicated that solifluction caused a historic blockage in the drainage area with consequent formation of lakes in the upstream part of these obstructions. At least two sites where this “Wullowitz-Lakes Theory” can be applied were identified. The occurrence of these lakes was validated by sediment analysis. The findings further indicated that the later fluvial processes in these deposits of a former stagnant water body forced the formation of an anabranching channel in the system, which would not have occurred in a solely freely developed fluvial system. In conclusion, it could be determined that the consideration of palaeo-processes might be important even for present onsite assessments of aquatic habitats and species such as the endangered freshwater pearl mussel.

The islands of the Gal acute accent apagos archipelago are of different ages due to the combination of a geostationary volcanic hotspot and the eastward movement of the Nazca tectonic plate. Taking advantage of this, a soil chronosequence (1.5-1070 ka) has recently been established covering four of the islands. This was used to investigate the temporal development of soil microstructure and micromineralogy using micromorphological methods in combination with synchrotron-based mineralogical and geochemical microanalyses. Along the chronosequence, the microstructure changed from intergrain microaggregates in the young soils to angular blocky micro-aggregates in the older soils. In the young soils, a high amount of vitric scoria and weatherable minerals occur, but they quickly disappear with age, and micromass increased fast. The micromorphological studies as well as micro-XRD and micro-XRF revealed increasing heterogeneity of soil microstructure and micromineralogy due to weathering and pedogenic processes until intermediate soil age. In the oldest soils, the microstructure became more uniform again, de-mixing pedofeatures like clay coatings have completely disappeared, and kaolinite, hematite and gibbsite dominate the mineralogical composition. Our study shows that the development of soil microstructure mirrors macroscopic soil profile development showing increasing differentiation until interme-diate developmental stages and receding heterogeneity in highly weathered soils.

The Banjarnegara–Jemblung Landslide was triggered on 12 December 2014 near the village of Jemblung in Central Java (Indonesia). The disaster occurred on the northern slope of Gunung Telagalele and caused more than 100 fatalities, making it the most disastrous landslide to have occurred in Indonesia in the past few decades. The event was characterized by multiple slope failures forming two landslide events A and B, with two connected scarps but two separated runout paths. According to eyewitnesses, landslide A was mobilized only a few minutes after the initial failure of B. Initially, both landslides began as earth slides that developed subsequently into very to extremely rapid earth flows. Although the failure volume was moderate, both slide flows reached very high velocities of several metres per second and travelled long distances, leading to remarkably low travel angles of 14° and 15°. Field investigations confirmed that slope failure was exacerbated by its geological predisposition based on a slope-parallel layering of volcaniclastic sediments of different origin and age, as well as intensive tropical weathering that generated clay-rich soils. Temporal relationships, as well as stability analysis, indicate that antecedent rainfall over 2 months and heavy rainfall the day before triggered the slope failure. Thematic collection: This article is part of the Leading to Innovative Engineering Geology Practices collection available at: https://www.lyellcollection.org/topic/collections/leading-to-innovative-engineering-geology-practices

Squids are an evolutionary-biological success model since the Palaeozoic. The presence of cartilage enables them to a high-speed predatory lifestyle. Although coleoid and vertebrate cartilage are histological very similar, there is no need for in vivo mineralisation in squids. Contrary, its mineralisation in dead specimens under laboratory conditions was investigated several times, but until now taphonomic studies on coleoid cartilage are rare. We present an experimental setting in which we investigate the decay and possible mineralisation processes of coleoid cartilage under semi-natural conditions, using a substrate from the eastern Black Sea, which was collected during the Mare Nigrum Expedition 226. Elemental analysis of the sediment with X-ray fluorescence (XRF) revealed hints for palaeoenvironmental similarities to the deposits of the Late Triassic Polzberg Konservat-Lagerstätte near Lunz am See (Lower Austria, Northern Calcareous Alps), which provides deep insights to the morphology and ecology of the fossil belemnitid Phragmoteuthis bisinuata, including the preservation of soft tissues such as cranial cartilage. Mineralogical composition of the recent sediment was analysed by X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and clay mineral analysis. In a test series, full specimens of the coleoid Loligo vulgaris were buried in the sediment samples for two months. After exhumation of the “fossilised” squid, decay processes will be documented with a strong focus on cephalic cartilage. Possible mineralisation can be determined by the use of XRD and Fourier-Transformation-Infrared-Spectroscopy (FTIR). Stained histological thin sections of Sepia officinalis cranial cartilage before and after the experiment, as well as Magnetic Resonance Tomography (MRI) of two cephalopod specimens (Octopus vulgaris and Loligo vulgaris) and the corresponding reconstructions constitute the dataset for cephalic cartilage morphology and its comparisons to the semi-fossilized cartilages. The fossilisation process will be tested under different environments, while changes in temperature, oxygen saturation and pH-values will be monitored. Associated morphological changes will be quantified with Micro-Computertomography (Micro-CT) and the methods above mentioned. The obtained data on the decay and preservation in microenvironments of the coleoid carcasses and possible onset of cartilage mineralisation will increase the knowledge on the individual factors that are involved in the fossilisation processes, which lead to exceptional preservation in Konservat-Lagerstätten.

Icelandic soils develop in a dynamic environment affected by both natural processes and anthropogenic impacts. We present an extensive investigation of soil mineralogy and pedogenesis in a disturbed (i.e., by solifluction) pedon under such conditions. The study focuses on two distinct tephra layers, a rhyolitic tephra from the or AE fajokull eruption in 1362 CE (o1362) and a basaltic Veioivotn tephra from 1477 CE (V1477). Both tephra layers form an important parent material in the study area south of Vatnajokull, Iceland. The Andosol developed from tephra and aeolian material, rich in volcanic glass. The pH (H2O) values were between 5.5 and 6.6 and clay mineralogy displayed a predominance of allophanic material in both soil and tephra. The pedon can be seen in its early stage of chemical weathering and soil development. Despite the overall predominance of non- and poorly-crystalline short-range order secondary materials and Fe (hydr)oxides in the clay-size fraction, we found indication of smectite. High exchangeable Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentrations reflect enhanced aeolian input of volcanic material, while elevated exchangeable-Na+ concentrations are most likely caused by the oceanic composition of precipitation. The impact of erosion and aeolian processes on pedogenesis seemed to be higher between the deposition of o1362 and V1477, than in the soils above. Both, soil and tephra layers appeared disturbed by erosion-deposition processes over time. Characterised by a significantly coarser particle size composition, low soil organic carbon (SOC) content, and a more diverse mineralogy, a distinct fluvial sediment layer at 10-30 cm depth appeared sharply contrasting to the other soil layers in the profile. This possibly reflects the diverse composition of glaciofluvial material from a landslide originating from a Kviarjokull moraine in the north. Changed weathering patterns and properties in the soils above the o1362 tephra indicated soil degradation following the deposition of the rhyolitic tephra.

The vernacular architecture in many regions in Eastern Austria was characterized by the use of unfired clay, at least until the 19th century, and in some areas until the 20th century. Farmhouses and associated farm buildings, such as storage buildings or press houses for the production of wine and cider, were erected using different earth construction techniques. The study area stretches from the Weinviertel, a region located in the province of Lower Austria in the north-east of Austria, to the Burgenland, a region located in the south-east of Austria, which belonged to Western Hungary until 1921. From a geological point of view, in the east of Austria-in the Vienna Basin and the Molasse Zone-huge areas of Tertiary clay are covered with loess deposits, which is the best-known basic material used in local earth-building traditions. A core question in the research on vernacular earthen heritage focuses on the impact of the geological conditions in Eastern Austria on the local earth-building techniques. The mineralogical composition of the different clays had an impact on the local building techniques. From a material-culture point of view, research on the relationship between the mineralogical properties of clay resources and local building techniques sheds light on the factors which influenced the evolution of certain vernacular building features. Tertiary clays and loess from the Pleistocene favoured the making of earth lumps, cob walls and adobe bricks over the whole Eastern Austrian region. Contrarily, regions in Burgenland with a high amount of gravel preferred, by tradition, to make walls by ramming. The clay mineral smectite acts as a binding agent in earth-building techniques over the whole investigated region-Weinviertel, Burgenland and Western Hungary.