ABSTRACT Protein energy malnutrition (PEM), a condition influenced by a complex interplay of biological and environmental factors, gut microbiota and low consumption of calories or protein, remains a serious global public health concern, especially in developing nations. Technologies based on cold atmospheric plasma (CAP), a mildly ionized gas rich in biochemically reactive species, have already demonstrated their strong potential as a simple, flexible and sustainable solution to many global challenges, from disease management to environmental remediation and food sustainability. This article explores the innovative strategies by which CAP technologies can address and mitigate PEM. Controlled preclinical studies indicate that CAP technologies can positively contribute to food security by enhancing protein availability and quality. By affecting oral and gut microbiota, CAP enhanced protein absorption. It can also modify the chemical structure of various food proteins to maximize their nutrient content and reduce allergenicity. This review addresses possible solutions using CAP in the mitigation of PEM and outlines key challenges and opportunities in translating CAP technologies into real‐life solutions, particularly in regions where the burden of PEM is most significant.

Atomic oxygen in low Earth orbit erodes polyimide, increasing surface roughness and degrading performance. The reactive species scission polymer chains and remove surface material, exposing fresh sites that accelerate further attack and disrupt thermal, electrical, and mechanical functions. In this paper, we evaluate nanoscale reinforcements of polyimide with graphene and metal oxides under controlled atomic oxygen exposure equivalent to 145 days at a 550 km orbit. Graphene with a thickness of few nanometers and particle size less than 2 µm, and metal oxides zirconia, zinc oxide, and titania with particle size less than 100 nm were investigated. Hybrids containing graphene plus metal oxide at a 1:1 ratio and a total loading of 0.75 wt% increased roughness relative to neat polyimide, with graphene-zirconia showing a rise of +121 percent, graphene-zinc oxide +10 percent, and graphene-titania +20 percent. The behavior is consistent with agglomeration, incomplete dispersion, and interfacial mismatch that hinder uniform blocking of atomic oxygen and limit formation of protective oxygenated groups. In contrast, single-filler composites at 0.75 wt% reduced average roughness, with graphene lowering Sa by about 59 percent, zirconia by about 51%, titania by about 47%, and zinc oxide by about 47%. Varying graphene loading from 0.25 to 0.75 wt% diminished erosive features at the higher end, but atomic force microscopy revealed isolated tall peaks at 0.75 wt%, indicating localized restacking or agglomeration. Mechanical testing of graphene-reinforced coatings on fiberglass showed a similar trade-off, with tensile strength around 23 MPa and peak load greater than 50 N at 0.5 wt% compared to about 21 MPa and 40 N at 0.75 wt%, while strain at break remained comparable. These results define practical limits for nanoparticle reinforcement in polyimide, linking filler identity, loading, and dispersion quality to atomic oxygen response and sustained function in LEO.

This perspective consolidates recent advances that position plasma and metamaterials as a unified metasystem for next-generation space micropropulsion systems. The need for new approaches arises because advanced small form-factor satellites and propulsion systems face physical and technological limits of conventional methods, including restricted scalability, limited electromagnetic control, and insufficient efficiency for complex and long-duration missions. These causes motivate the implementation of concepts based on metamaterials, plasma-based subsystems used in unconventional ways, and engineered ionized media. The paper integrates three complementary domains: plasma-enabled fabrication of complex metamaterials, engineered plasma–metamaterial interaction for controlled electromagnetic environments, and structured plasmas functioning as metamaterials with tunable effective properties. Emerging examples include metasurface-assisted waveguides for compact plasma sources, plasma-induced transparency platforms, machine learning-optimized metamaterial absorbers, and inverse-designed plasma metamaterials. Advances in plasma-based additive manufacturing and hierarchical material synthesis further expand the design space for multifunctional architectures, enabling adaptive, efficient and miniaturized propulsion concepts for CubeSat-class and small-satellite systems.

Graphene oxide-based textiles are rapidly advancing as multifunctional materials for personal thermal regulation, antibacterial protection, and wearable sensing. This review provides a brief overview of recent developments in the integration of graphene oxide (GO) into textile substrates, with a focus on the underlying mechanisms driving heat management and sensing capabilities. In thermal applications, we explore how GO-modified fibres leverage Joule heating and phase-change effects to dynamically regulate surface temperature while preserving mechanical integrity. In sensing technologies, GO’s high surface area and tunable electronic properties enable improved sensitivity and rapid response in detecting strain, humidity, and biochemical markers. We also address key challenges, including scalable production, wash durability, and long-term environmental stability, offering insights into material optimization and integration strategies. By critically examining current progress and technological hurdles, this review highlights the potential of GO-functionalized textiles to transform wearable systems, with promising applications in healthcare, environmental monitoring, and smart clothing.

Currently valued at around $600 billion, the space economy is expected to reach $1.8 trillion by 2035, with vital terrestrial systems increasingly dependent on space infrastructure. Growth is largely driven by the rising deployment of small and medium satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO), yet most are single-use and quickly decommissioned after failure, contributing to orbital debris and challenging sustainability. This article examines opportunities and challenges in developing orbital servicing infrastructure for small satellites, highlighting how such technologies can extend operational lifetimes, reduce replacement costs and enhance the reliability of future constellations, supporting the long-term development of the LEO space economy.

Satellite technology is the cornerstone of space exploration. Recently, satellite constellations have emerged as an affordable and efficient way to expand the range of possible missions. Small satellites offer impressive capabilities and can be mass-produced and deployed. However, the long-term growth of the small satellite economy will depend on adopting sustainable product life-cycle management. This includes maximizing the efficiency and effectiveness of space operations by developing functional platforms for repair, servicing, and upgrading of assets after they have been deployed in space. Additive techniques, particularly those enhanced by the use of plasma, could become key tools in this endeavour as the use of charged particles may help overcome some of the challenges presented by the space environment, such as microgravity and extreme temperatures, reducing the risks and costs associated with repairs and upgrades. Our review examines the level of technological readiness of plasma-enhanced and plasma-enabled additive manufacturing technologies in view of their possible use for various in-space satellite repair and servicing tasks, concluding that it is sufficient to initiate its implementation in space. Looking towards the future, key obstacles and benefits of incorporating 3D plasma printing technology in both open space and microgravity environments are explored.

In space agriculture, a soil-free cultivation method with low system complexity and mass, hydroponics offers passive aeration, automation, and a means to overcome inefficient distribution of water and limited convective mixing of substrate-based growth systems under micro- and low gravity conditions. Incorporation of local regolith into the hydroponics system has been considered as a step towards in situ resource utilisation, however previous studies demonstrated reduced growth and stress morphologies in plants grown in regolith. This study explores whether cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) treatment can be used to improve the quality of water enriched with regolith particles, and thus enhance the growth, yield and vitality of microgreens. CAP treatment of Simulated Martian Regolith (W-SMR) water for 10 or 30 min increased shoot length of Brassica oleracea by 114% and 89%, and Medicago sativa by 218% and 195%, respectively. For Simulated Lunar Regolith (W-SLR), CAP treatment increased shoot length of M. sativa by 113% and 88%, and B. oleracea by 108% and 129%. Root length also increased, notably for M. sativa in W-SLR and B. oleracea in W-SMR, with smaller effects for M. sativa in W-SMR. CAP treatment was found to alter the concentration of essential elements known to affect plant development, increasing the concentrations of 24Mg, 31P, 39K, 66Zn, and 44Ca known to promote plant growth, while reducing the concentrations of 51V and 27Al that may be responsible for a greater level of stress in plants grown in untreated solutions due to their influence on enzymatic processes. These results confirm the potential of CAP treatment to improve productivity of hydroponic systems that utilise local regolith as an alternative to closed loop systems.

Erosion detection in materials exposed to plasma-generated species, such as those used for space propulsion systems, is critical for ensuring their reliability and longevity. This study introduces an efficient image processing technique to monitor the evolution of the erosion depth in boron nitride (BN) subjected to multiple cycles of iodine plasma exposure. Utilising atomic force microscopy (AFM) images from both untreated and treated BN samples, the technique uses a modified semi-automated image registration method that accurately aligns surface profiles—even after substantial erosion—and overcomes challenges related to changes in the eroded surface features. The registered images are then processed through frequency-domain subtraction to visualise and quantify erosion depth. Our technique tracks changes across the BN surface at multiple spatial locations and generates erosion maps at exposure durations of 24, 48, 72 and 84 min using both one-stage and multi-stage registration methods. These maps not only reveal localised material loss (up to 5.5 μm after 84 min) and assess its uniformity but also indicate potential re-deposition of etched material and redistribution across the surface through mechanisms such as diffusion. By analysing areas with higher elevations and observing plasma-treated samples over time, we notice that these elevated regions—initially the most affected—gradually decrease in size and height, while overall erosion depth increases. Progressive surface smoothing is observed with increasing iodine plasma exposure, as quantified by AFM-based erosion mapping. Notably, up to 89.3% of surface heights were concentrated near the mean after 72–84 min of plasma treatment, indicating a more even distribution of surface features compared to the untreated surface. Iodine plasma was compared to argon plasma to distinguish material loss during degradation between these two mechanisms. Iodine plasma causes more aggressive and spatially selective erosion, strongly influenced by initial surface morphology, whereas argon plasma results in milder and more uniform surface changes. Additional scale-dependent slope and curvature analyses confirm that iodine rapidly smooths fine features, whereas argon better preserves surface sharpness over time. Tracking such sharpness is critical for maintaining the fine structures essential to the fabrication of modern semiconductor components. Overall, this image processing tool offers a powerful and adaptable method for accurately assessing surface degradation and morphological changes in materials used in plasma-facing and space propulsion environments.

Polyimides have a long history of use in space missions, with Kapton® being the first polymer material to touch the surface of the Moon. Polyimides offer remarkable mechanical strength, superior thermal stability, and resistance to radiation, chemicals, and wear, and as such are often serve as a thermal barrier and a protective layer against extreme radiation and temperatures in multi-layer insulation systems. While the use of Kapton® in spacesuits dates back to the two aluminised Kapton® layers used in the spacesuits in the Apollo 11 mission, the potential uses of polyimides in the design of spacesuits remain underexplored, particularly considering the advancement made in the development of high-performance polyimide-based composites. This review explores the opportunities that emerge when the desirable properties of polyimides are combined with that of nanomaterials, specifically carbon nanomaterials, to produce strategic material combinations that promise to achieve enhanced thermal and mechanical properties, improved resistance to abrasion and puncture, and potentially reduced weight compared to traditional spacesuit materials. In turn, these advancements will contribute to the development of next-generation spacesuits that offer superior comfort, protection, and astronaut mobility during extravehicular activities.

Progress in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine relies heavily on the development of novel scaffold materials. In this work, we created porous composite scaffolds of polyglycerol sebacate (PGS) and gelatine (G) through desolvation and lyophilization to achieve a well-balanced nanostructured porous material with desirable properties. Spectroscopic analysis confirmed the uniform integration of PGS elastomer and gelatine in the composite, with a composite with an optimised ratio of gelatine to PGS of 2:1 providing a required level of bioactivity, biodegradability and elasticity for soft tissue engineering applications. Introducing hydroxyapatite (HAP) into the composite mixture prior to lyophilization at an optimised weight ratio of HAP to gelatine to PGS of 6:3:1 resulted in a composite (HAP-GPGS) that closely simulates the microenvironment afforded by the native bone extracellular matrix, with PGS providing scaffold flexibility, and gelatine and hydroxyapatite promoting cell adhesion and osteoconduction. FTIR spectroscopy confirmed uniform distribution of constituents throughout the HAP-GPGS scaffold, with the nanostructure and porosity mimicking the structural architecture of the cancellous bone matrix, as shown by SEM. Both GPGS and HAP-GPGS scaffolds were found to be non-cytotoxic and conducive to proliferation of MG63 (human osteoblast) and 3T3 (mouse fibroblast) cell lines, with the results of the MTT assay demonstrating excellent cellular viability and proliferation on the composite surfaces. Furthermore, the osteogenic potential of the scaffolds was evaluated through Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) assay. Phase contrast microscopy and Fluorescence microscopy used to visualize cell-scaffold interactions showed favourable cell attachment and spreading, as evidenced by SEM and optical microscopy showing well-spread morphology and cytoplasmic extensions. The nanostructured surface and bioactive composition of the scaffolds appear to promote healthy cell–material interactions. While the GPGS composite promoted the development of soft tissue-like structures, suggesting wound healing and soft tissue engineering applications, the significant enhancement in osteogenic differentiation in MG63 cells on the surface of HAP-GPGS scaffolds indicates their suitability for bone regeneration. These findings suggest that composites based on GPGS and HAP-GPGS have the desirable combination of characteristics, such as simple, low-cost fabrication from abundant resources, ability to fine-tune properties without the need to change scaffold preparation protocol, and highly biocompatible and osteoconductive nature of thus produced materials.

Most breast implants currently used in both reconstructive and cosmetic surgery have a silicone outer shell, which, despite much progress, remains susceptible to mechanical failure, infection, and foreign body response. This study shows that the durability and biocompatibility of breast implant-grade silicone can be enhanced by incorporating carbon nanomaterials of sp(2) and sp(3) hybridization into the polymer matrix and onto its surface. Plasma treatment of the implant surface can be used to modify platelet adhesion and activation to prevent thrombosis, postoperative infection, and inflammation disorders. The addition of 0.8% graphene flakes resulted in an increase in mechanical strength by 64% and rupture strength by around 77% when compared to pure silicone, whereas when nanodiamond (ND) was used as the additive, the mechanical strength was increased by 19.4% and rupture strength by 37.5%. Composites with a partially embedded surface layer of either graphene or ND showed superior antimicrobial activity and biocompatibility compared to pure silicone. All composite materials were able to sustain the attachment and growth of human dermal fibroblast, with the preferred growth noted on ND-coated surfaces when compared to graphene-coated surfaces. Exposure of these materials to hydrogen plasma for 5, 10, and 20 s led to substantially reduced platelet attachment on the surfaces. Hydrogen-treated pure silicone showed a decrease in platelet attachment for samples treated for 5-20 s, whereas silicone composite showed an almost threefold decrease in platelet attachment for the same plasma treatment times. The absence of platelet activation on the surface of composite materials suggests a significant improvement in hemocompatibility of the material.

Wrinkled coatings are a potential drug-free method for mitigating bacterial attachment and biofilm formation on materials such as medical and food grade steel. However, their fabrication typically requires multiple steps and often the use of a stimulus to induce wrinkle formation. Here, we report a facile plasma-based method for rapid fabrication of thin (<250 nm) polymer coatings from a single environmentally friendly precursor, where wrinkle formation and fractal pattern development are controlled solely by varying the deposition time from 3 s to 60 s. We propose a mechanism behind the observed in situ development of wrinkles in plasma, as well as demonstrate how introducing specific topographical features on the surface of the substrata can result int the formation of even more complex, ordered wrinkle patterns arising from the non-uniformity of plasma when in contact with structured surfaces. Thus-fabricated wrinkled surfaces show good adhesion to substrate and an antifouling activity that is not observed in the equivalent smooth coatings and hence is attributed to the specific pattern of wrinkles.

CubeSat and small satellites play a very important role in modern space exploration. Their success and diverse capabilities rely on the development of efficient and compact sub-systems. This task is not trivial due to multiple challenges posed by their small size and mass, and the solution calls for conceptually new designs for the fabrication and integration of complex miniaturized satellite components. The importance of additive techniques in small satellite manufacturing is steadily increasing as they enable rapid, large-scale production of sophisticated architectures, such as hollow, webbed parts with a cell-like structure similar to animal bone, with lower mass and improved functionality. Moreover, these architectures feature higher strength, enhanced heat transfer, and efficient thermal and electromagnetic radiation shielding. When compared to traditional subtractive technologies like cutting and milling, additive manufacturing proves to be more versatile and effective in realizing architectures with an increasing intricacy of shapes, structures, and compositions. The perspective explores the suitability of 3D printing in various satellite production tasks, including the propulsion system components and satellite elements. Looking ahead, the challenges and advantages of integrating 3D printing technology into satellite production, emphasizing the need for continuous development through consolidated, proactive collaborative efforts of many devoted teams are outlined. The article discusses the future of 3D printing in the production of components and systems used in satellites, specifically for propulsion. It critically reviews the challenges and opportunities presented by 3D printing in this field, both with respect to advancing the manufacturing of existing satellite designs as well as developing novel designs that cannot realize with current technologies. image

The conversion efficiency of a thermoelectric power generator depends on the dimensionless figure-of-merit (ZT) of the constituent thermoelectric materials, which is mainly determined by their Seebeck coefficient as well as the electrical and thermal conductivity. ZnO holds promise for thermoelectric applications, yet its use is currently limited by low electrical conductivity and high thermal conductivity. Herein, we demonstrate how thermal conductivity of ZnO can be significantly reduced by intelligently combining it with a cellulose-based Ag fabric using a one-step hydrothermal method, and how different ratios of zinc nitrate hexahydrate (ZNH) to hexamethylenetetramine (HMT) can be used to fine-tune the thermoelectric performance of the resulting composite. We show that as-prepared samples have a composite structure of Ag, Zn and O without any other impurity phases. We propose that the facet dependent crystal growth orientation, from the c-axis in (101) planes to the a-axis in (100) plane, amplify phonon scattering within the material, impeding effective heat transfer and thereby lowering overall thermal conductivity to 0.046 W/mK at room temperature for composites with a 1:1 ZNH to HMT ratio.

Using three common polymeric materials (polypropylene (PP), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and polycaprolactone (PCL)), a standard oxygen-plasma treatment and atomic force microscopy (AFM), we performed a scaling analysis of the modified surfaces yielding effective Hurst exponents (H similar or equal to 0.77 +/- 0.02 (PP), similar or equal to 0.75 +/- 0.02 (PTFE), and similar or equal to 0.83 +/- 0.02 (PCL)), for the one-dimensional profiles, corresponding to the transversal sections of the surface, by averaging over all possible profiles. The surface fractal dimensions are given by ds = 3 - H, corresponding to ds similar or equal to 2.23, 2.25, and 2.17, respectively. We present a simple method to obtain the surface area from the AFM images stored in a matrix of 512 x 512 pixels. We show that the considerable increase found in the surface areas of the treated samples w.r.t. to the non-treated ones (43% for PP, 85% for PTFE, and 25% for PCL, with errors of about 2.5% on samples of 2 mu m x 2 mu m) is consistent with the observed increase in the length scales of the fractal regime to determine H, typically by a factor of about 2, extending from a few to hundreds of nanometres. We stipulate that the intrinsic roughness already present in the original non-treated material surfaces may serve as 'fractal' seeds undergoing significant height fluctuations during plasma treatment, suggesting a pathway for the future development of advanced material interfaces with large surface areas at the nanoscale. Non-treated (NT) and plasma-treated (PT) polymeric surfaces display self-affine fractal scaling. The plasma increases both the surface area and the fractal length scales, helping the design of PT interfaces with larger surface areas at the nm scale.

Sea vessels and artificial sea‐based structures are severely affected by biofouling, i.e., the formation of deposits of living and dead marine organisms that belong to different species and range in size from unicellular bacteria to multicellular seaweed and mussels. This is a significant engineering problem since they essentially alter the geometry of the hull, increasing friction and reducing the speed of vessels, thus increasing the cost and environmental footprint of transportation. Given the scale of global transportation reaches several billion tons per year, the socioeconomic consequences of the reduction in transit speed and increased consumption of fuel continue to drive researchers and engineers to develop strategies to combat the processes of marine biofouling. Many types of antifouling paints, coatings, and materials that have been designed and tested, and in some instances used commercially, suffer from shortcomings ranging from environmental toxicity to limited efficiency and durability. In this review article, a brief overview of the traditional antifouling materials is presented and recent achievements in the design of advanced antifouling materials based on such nanomaterials as graphene, nanotubes, nanoparticles, and more complex nanostructures are discussed. These materials exhibit excellent antifouling properties and candrive a breakthrough in how marine biofouling is tackled.

Global environmental, social, and economic challenges call for innovative solutions to food production. Current food production systems require advances beyond traditional paradigms, acknowledging the complexity arising from sustainability and a present lack of awareness about technologies that may help limit, for example, loss of nutrients from soil. Aquaponics, a closed-loop system that combines aquaculture with hydroponics, is a step towards the more efficient management of scarce water, land, and nutrient resources. However, its large-scale use is currently limited by several significant challenges of maintaining desirable water chemistry and pH, managing infections in fish and plants, and increasing productivity efficiently, economically, and sustainably. This paper investigates the opportunities presented by plasma technologies in meeting these challenges, potentially opening new pathways for sustainability in food production.

Low-dimensional copper oxide nanostructures are very promising building blocks for various functional materials targeting high-demanded applications, including energy harvesting and transformation systems, sensing and catalysis. Featuring a very high surface-to-volume ratio and high chemical reactivity, these materials have attracted wide interest from researchers. Currently, extensive research on the fabrication and applications of copper oxide nanostructures ensures the fast progression of this technology. In this article we briefly outline some of the most recent, mostly within the past two years, innovations in well-established fabrication technologies, including oxygen plasma-based methods, self-assembly and electric-field assisted growth, electrospinning and thermal oxidation approaches. Recent progress in several key types of leading-edge applications of CuO nanostructures, mostly for energy, sensing and catalysis, is also reviewed. Besides, we briefly outline and stress novel insights into the effect of various process parameters on the growth of low-dimensional copper oxide nanostructures, such as the heating rate, oxygen flow, and roughness of the substrates. These insights play a key role in establishing links between the structure, properties and performance of the nanomaterials, as well as finding the cost-and-benefit balance for techniques that are capable of fabricating low-dimensional CuO with the desired properties and facilitating their integration into more intricate material architectures and devices without the loss of original properties and function.

The emergence of antibiotic resistant microorganisms possesses a great threat to human health and the environment. Considering the exponential increase in the spread of antibiotic resistant microorganisms, it would be prudent to consider the use of alternative antimicrobial agents or therapies. Only a sustainable, sustained, determined, and coordinated international effort will provide the solutions needed for the future. Plant secondary metabolites show bactericidal and bacteriostatic activity similar to that of conventional antibiotics. However, to effectively eliminate infection, secondary metabolites may need to be activated by heat treatment or combined with other therapies. Cold atmospheric plasma therapy is yet another novel approach that has proven antimicrobial effects. In this review, we explore the physiochemical mechanisms that may give rise to the improved antimicrobial activity of secondary metabolites when combined with cold atmospheric plasma therapy.