Thermal processing of meat at elevated temperatures induces the generation of heterocyclic aromatic amines of food safety concern, among which 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo [4,5-b] pyridine (PhIP) predominates. This study explored the impact of five polyphenols (caffeic acid, curcumin, ellagic acid, quercetin, and resveratrol) added at 0.05%, 0.1%, and 0.2% (w/w) on oxidative reactions, precursor availability, PhIP formation, and quality characteristics of chicken meat cooked by pan-frying. Polyphenol incorporation significantly enhanced moisture retention and lowered cooking loss in the samples with quercetin added at 0.2%. Color analysis showed that most polyphenols increased lightness (L*) while curcumin significantly enhanced yellowness (b*). Redness (a*) decreased for all treatments except quercetin and caffeic acid. All polyphenols reduced the thermal consumption of PhIP precursors (glucose and creatine) with quercetin at 0.2% resulting in residual glucose and creatine levels of 0.83 and 2.08 mg/g, respectively. Quercetin showed the greatest reduction in lipid oxidation with TBARS inhibition up to 67.79% and the highest decrease in carbonyl content (43.63%). All polyphenols significantly suppressed PhIP formation with quercetin at 0.2% achieving the highest inhibition of PhIP (61.47%), followed by ellagic acid (53.65%), resveratrol (46.15%), and caffeic acid (45.46%) at the same concentration, while curcumin at 0.05% showed the weakest effect (10.25%). The radical scavenging activity of polyphenols did not strongly correlate with their ability to inhibit PhIP formation; correlation analysis revealed that PhIP inhibition was strongly correlated with the extent of lipid and protein oxidation. These findings suggest that dietary polyphenols can reduce PhIP formation in fried chicken patties.

This study investigated the impact of the addition of different types and concentrations (0%, 0.5%, 1%, and 1.5% w/w) of hydrocolloids, including carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), chitosan (CH), gum arabic (GA), kappa-carrageenan (KC), starch (ST), and xanthan gum (XG) on the quality attributes, oxidative stability, and 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b] pyridine (PhIP) formation in pan-fried chicken patties. The incorporation of the tested hydrocolloids significantly (p < 0.05) improved moisture retention and reduced cooking loss, with patties incorporated with KC at 1.5% addition level demonstrating the highest moisture content (55.50%) and lowest cooking loss (27.92%). Moreover, most hydrocolloids resulted in increased lightness (L*) and yellowness (b*) of the patties, while simultaneously causing a reduction in their redness (a*). The inclusion of hydrocolloids decreased the consumption of glucose and creatine during frying, reducing precursors for PhIP formation, with CH at 1.5% exhibiting the greatest inhibitory effect (46.55% and 71.61% reductions, respectively). All six hydrocolloids significantly (p < 0.05) reduced PhIP formation at all tested levels, with the highest inhibition rate observed for CH at 1.5% (92.58%), followed by CMC at 1.5% (87.57%) and KC at 1.5% (87.52%). Regarding protein and lipid oxidation in the patties, CH at a 1.5% addition level demonstrated the most effective thiol protection, the highest inhibition rate of carbonyl compound formation, and was also the most effective treatment in lowering TBARS values among the tested hydrocolloids. Texture profile analysis (TPA) revealed that the addition of hydrocolloids decreased hardness of the patties, with KC at 1.5% showing the most pronounced reduction. Cohesiveness was enhanced in samples containing CH, KC, and CMC while springiness and chewiness were largely unaffected. Overall, the tested hydrocolloids, particularly CH at the 1.5% addition level, demonstrated significant potential in enhancing the quality and safety of pan-fried chicken patties.

Increasing environmental concerns over using petroleum-based packaging materials in the food industry have encouraged researchers to produce edible food packaging materials from renewable sources. Biopolymer-based edible films and coatings can be implemented as bio-based packaging materials for prolonging the shelf life of food products. However, poor mechanical characteristics and high permeability for water vapor limit their practical applications. In this regard, plant oils (POs) as natural additives have a high potential to overcome certain shortcomings related to the functionality of edible packaging materials. In this paper, a summary of the effects of Pos as natural additives on different properties of edible films and coatings is presented. Moreover, the application of edible films and coatings containing POs for the preservation of different food products is also discussed. It has been found that incorporation of POs could result in improvements in packaging’s barrier, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties. Furthermore, the incorporation of POs could significantly improve the performance of edible packaging materials in preserving the quality attributes of various food products. Overall, the current review highlights the potential of POs as natural additives for application in edible food packaging materials.

Strawberries are highly perishable fruits with significant post-harvest losses which can reach up to 50

This study investigated the effect of immersion time of chicken breasts in potato starch (PS) coating containing amino acids (AAs) on the formation of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo [4,5-b] pyridine (PhIP) and to evaluate a possible mechanism to inhibit the formation of PhIP in chicken breasts during frying. The chicken breasts with standardized dimensions were dipped in the potato starch (PS) coating solution containing 0.25% w/v lysine (Lys) for different times (15 min, 30 min, 1 h, 3 h, and 6 h). After drying the coating on the chickens, samples were fried at 195 °C for 7.5 min on each side. Results showed that the immersion time does not significantly decrease (p < 0.05) the PhIP level, suggesting that 15 min immersion time is enough for PhIP reduction compared to the control chicken samples (without coating). Phenylacetaldehyde (PheAce) was increased in chicken breast coated with PS-0.25% Lys after frying, suggesting that there should be another pathway to prevent the formation of PhIP by the addition of PS-0.25% Lys. Volatile compound analysis also confirmed this and showed increases in many aroma compounds in the coated chicken. Moreover, no significant differences (p < 0.05) were shown between the cooking loss percentage, color parameters, texture profile, and tenderness of chicken with the PS-0.25% coating and chicken without coating.

N (6)-Carboxy-methyl lysine (CML), a biomarker of advanced glycation end products (AGE), is one of the hazardous substances from the food safety perspective. Recent researches have shown a direct relationship between consuming heat-treated foods with high carbohydrate, protein and fat content and increased levels of CML in food and body tissues which consequently has adverse effects on human health. In this review, the effect of several factors on CML formation was separately discussed in human body and food products. In the first part, the results of in vivo and in vitro researches including formation routes of biological CML; and impact of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on its formation were summarized. In the second part, the CML formation in the food products was reviewed emphasizing the role of processing/cooking method, food component and additives. Finally, the biological fate of dietary CML was discussed in which its accumulation and/or detoxification is associated with AGE receptors systems.

Edible films and coatings, composed of biological components such as proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides, play a pivotal role in various applications. While proteins from diverse plant sources, including maize, soy, and wheat, have been extensively explored for their film-forming capabilities, soybean protein remains predominant in edible films. Nonetheless, researchers have increasingly investigated alternative legume proteins, such as those derived from various beans, peanuts, and field peas, as potential candidates for edible film applications. Pea, ranked fourth globally in food legume production after soybean, peanuts, and dry beans, emerges as a promising source for edible film production. Pea protein, valued for its low cost, high protein content, and absence of genetic modifications, along with pea starch, a by-product of pea protein extraction, has become the focal point of numerous studies in edible film development. This comprehensive review focuses on the examination of pea protein isolate, pea starch, and the edible films derived from these compounds. Functional properties of both pea protein and pea starch are systematically discussed. Subsequently, we delve into the extraction methods of these components, progressing to the creation of edible films from these materials. It then delves into various characteristics of edible films produced from pea protein and pea starch, encompassing mechanical properties, water vapor permeability, transparency, and solubility. Additionally, the review explores the influence of factors such as pH, heating, plasticizers, and other treatments on these film properties. Studies highlighted in this review demonstrate that modified edible film solutions based on pea protein and pea starch exhibit considerable potential for diverse applications in both food and non-food sectors. The promising outcomes suggest that these compounds could be utilized to produce edible films tailored to specific requirements, offering new possibilities for advancements in various industries.

The radiolysis of palmitic acid in chicken jerky (CJ) and pig ears (PE) can form 2-dodecylcyclobutanone (2-DCB). A solid-phase micro extraction-coupled GC-MS technique can be used for quantitative analysis of 2-DCB with the adequate use of an internal standard (IS). The objectives of this study are to: 1) investigate the IS and 2-DCB interactions as a function of IS concentration and irradiation dose; 2) elucidate the effects of bound 2-DCB; 3) use electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy to complement 2-DCB measurements. The measurement of 2DCB formed by irradiation was significantly (P < 0.05) affected by the palmitic acid content and IS concentration. The amount of 2-DCB measured in irradiated (10 kGy) CJ and PE increased 70% and 300%, respectively, when the IS concentration increased from 8 to 800 ppb. Our findings serve as a guide for the adequate use of IS for quantitative analysis of 2-DCB formed in irradiated meat matrixes.

The effects of potato starch (PS) coating containing amino acids (AAs) on the formation of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo [4,5-b] pyridine (PhIP) in chicken breasts were evaluated. PhIP is classified as a Group 2B carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). The 5% (w/w) gelatinized PS coating solution was incorporated with tryptophan (Trp) or lysine (Lys) at 0.25%, 0.5%, and 0.75% (w/w of the coating solution) concentrations. Chicken breast cuts with the same dimensions (5 × 2 × 1.5 cm) were dipped in the PS coating solution for 15 min before frying. After frying the chicken at 195°C for 7.5 min on each side, PhIP levels, color, cooking loss, tenderness, and texture profile assay were evaluated. The average PhIP concentration was decreased from 92.62 ng/g for the control chicken breast without coating to 6.30 ng/g (0.25% Lys), 6.76 ng/g (0.5% Lys), and 11.98 ng/g (0.75% Lys), accounting for an 89%-92% reduction in PhIP levels compared to the controls. However, dipping in Trp-containing PS coating had a significantly lower (p < 0.05) PhIP reduction effect (34%-67%). There was no significant difference in cooking loss percentage, tenderness, texture profile parameters, and color parameters of PS-coated chicken. Triangle test results showed that consumers did not detect a significant difference in the PS-coated chicken breasts (p < 0.001). Overall, this study suggests that the application of PS-based coatings incorporated with AAs on chicken breast reduces the PhIP formation.

This study was conducted to investigate the inhibitory effects of edible films containing amino acids (AAs) on the formation of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo [4,5-b] pyridine (PhIP) in chicken breasts and to evaluate the physicochemical properties of the chicken. Heated whey protein isolate (HWPI) solution (100 g) was made by heating 5 g whey protein isolate (WPI) solution at 90°C for 30 min in a water bath and subsequently mixed with 2.5 g glycerol (GLY), and tryptophan (Trp) or lysine (Lys) at 0.25%, 0.5%, and 0.75% concentrations. Unheated whey protein isolate (UHWPI)-based casting solution was prepared with the same method but without heating of WPI solution. Chicken breasts were cut at the same weights and were covered with the prepared edible films and fried at 195°C for 7.5 min. For edible films, total soluble matter (TSM%), color (calorimeter), radical scavenging activity (DPPH), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were conducted. For chicken breasts, PhIP level, color before and after frying (calorimeter), cooking loss percentage (weigh loss before after frying), and tenderness (texture analyzer) were evaluated. The average PhIP level decreased from 78.47 ppb to 6.69-8.31 ppb for chicken covered with Lys-containing HWPI edible films, and to 25.82-46.80 ppb for chicken covered with Trp-containing ones. For chicken covered with UHWPI edible films, the PhIP decreased 28.4-56.04 ppb for Trp-containing ones and 19.67-40.32 ppb for Lys-containing ones. Moreover, chicken breasts covered with HWPI edible films had lower cooking loss and improved tenderness compared to the chicken breasts with no edible film. This study provides a new approach to decrease the PhIP levels in fried chicken breast.

Creatine stores high-energy phosphate bonds in muscle and is synthesized in the liver through methylation of guanidinoacetic acid (GAA). Supplementation of GAA may therefore increase methyl group requirements, and this may affect methyl group utilization. Our experiment evaluated the metabolic responses of growing cattle to postruminal supplementation of GAA, in a model where methionine (Met) was deficient, with and without Met supplementation. Seven ruminally cannulated Holstein steers (161 kg initial body weight [BW]) were limit-fed a soybean hull-based diet (2.7 kg/d dry matter) and received continuous abomasal infusions of an essential amino acid (AA) mixture devoid of Met to ensure that no AA besides Met limited animal performance. To provide energy without increasing the microbial protein supply, all steers received ruminal infusions of 200 g/d acetic acid, 200 g/d propionic acid, and 50 g/d butyric acid, as well as abomasal infusions of 300 g/d glucose. Treatments, provided abomasally, were arranged as a 2 × 3 factorial in a split-plot design, and included 0 or 6 g/d of l-Met and 0, 7.5, and 15 g/d of GAA. The experiment included six 10-d periods. Whole body Met flux was measured using continuous jugular infusion of 1-13C-l-Met and methyl-2H3-l-Met. Nitrogen retention was elevated by Met supplementation (P < 0.01). Supplementation with GAA tended to increase N retention when it was supplemented along with Met, but not when it was supplemented without Met. Supplementing GAA linearly increased plasma concentrations of GAA and creatine (P < 0.001), but treatments did not affect urinary excretion of GAA, creatine, or creatinine. Supplementation with Met decreased plasma homocysteine (P < 0.01). Supplementation of GAA tended (P = 0.10) to increase plasma homocysteine when no Met was supplemented, but not when 6 g/d Met was provided. Protein synthesis and protein degradation were both increased by GAA supplementation when no Met was supplemented, but decreased by GAA supplementation when 6 g/d Met were provided. Loss of Met through transsulfuration was increased by Met supplementation, whereas synthesis of Met from remethylation of homocysteine was decreased by Met supplementation. No differences in transmethylation, transsulfuration, or remethylation reactions were observed in response to GAA supplementation. The administration of GAA, when methyl groups are not limiting, has the potential to improve lean tissue deposition and cattle growth.

Dried sweet potatoes (SPs) are often irradiated for improved safety and shelf life. Formation of irradiation-derived radicals was analyzed using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. These irradiation-specific radicals can be used to characterize the irradiation history of dry plant-based foods containing cellulose and sugars. The signal characteristics (intensity and peak shape) were evaluated at different sample locations (skin and flesh), as a function of sample preparation method (grinding, sieving, and pelletizing). The signal intensity was quantified using a double integration method of the peaks based on the area under the curve. The sieving caused ca. 50% decrease in total signal intensity as compared to nonsieved samples due to loss of cellulose-based radicals. The flesh of irradiated SP showed complex EPR spectra with multiple satellite peaks of cellulose radicals (333.5 and 338.8 mT) and split peak of dextrose radicals (337.4 mT); while skin spectra were distinctive of cellulose radicals. In this study, we demonstrated the effects of sample composition and preparation method on formation and analysis of irradiation-specific radicals based on EPR. Practical Application In the last decade or so, there have been health concerns related to the consumption of irradiated pet food products. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy can be used to analyze the irradiation history of dry products containing cellulose and sugar, such as the popular dog treat dried sweet potatoes, to ensure the products were irradiated within safe limits. This work demonstrates that the formation of irradiation-specific radicals is affected by the sample location (skin and flesh) and moisture content.

The food irradiation marker, 2-dodecylcyclobutanone (2-DCB), assayed by SPME provides a fast and simple method to estimate the irradiation history of fat-containing food products. The SPME conditions were optimized to maximize the extraction of 2-DCB from chicken jerky treats (CJT) irradiated at low (5 kGy) and high (50 kGy) doses. The extracted 2-DCB was measured using GC-MS in selected ion mode (m/z 98, and 112). Water dilution (1:5) was needed to mobilize 2-DCB and allow partition to the headspace form the CJT matrix. Increasing the incubation temperature to 80 °C resulted in higher response. Spiking control jerky samples with 2-DCB from 10 to 150 ng/g CJT compared with spiking water revealed a significant food matrix effect. This method provides a fast, simple, and environmental friendly alternative for the existing solvent extraction methods.

Natural antioxidants have many biological functions and serve as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents. Although the antioxidant effects of many spices and flavonoid compounds on 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo [4, 5-b] pyridine (PhIP) formation have been evaluated, research related to the synergistic antioxidant effect of various spices and flavonoids on PhIP formation is not well studied. In addition, at least some research shows a combination of compounds inhibits HCAs more strongly than a single antioxidant. Therefore, in this study, binary combinations of two antioxidant spices like piperine and capsaicin and two flavonoid compounds like genistin and catechin were investigated using a chemical model system that contained glucose, creatinine, and phenylalanine in 90:10 diethylene glycol/water (v/v) and heat-treated at 180°C for 1 hour to test the formation of PhIP. The PhIP contents were assessed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). All ratios of mixed spices and corresponding flavonoid compounds were as follows: 1:0.25, 1:0.5, and 1:1. The synergistic effect was assessed by identifying the reduction percentage of PhIP formation. All investigated combinations significantly (p< 0.05) reduced PhIP formation. The combination of piperine and genistin had the highest synergistic effect for all combinations. While the combination of catechin and capsaicin had the lowest synergistic effect. Knowing the antioxidants with the best synergistic effects could be useful in developing dietary antioxidants, leading to lower HCA formation.

There is little research on how product matrix and processing affect phenolic compounds in sweetened dried cranberries over time. The objective of this research was to assess polyphenol content and stability in sweetened dried cranberries between product matrix types. This research assessed five commercially available sweetened dried cranberry matrices: (1) sliced apple juice infused, (2) whole apple juice infused, (3) sliced sucrose infused, (4) whole sucrose infused, and (5) sliced soluble corn fiber, glycerin, sucrose, and sucralose infused (three replicates/treatment). Proanthocyanidins, anthocyanins (HPLC), total phenolic content (Folin–Ciocalteu), water activity, moisture content, color, and texture were evaluated over 12 months at 21 °C. Data were analyzed by ANOVA (p < 0.05). Results demonstrate that sweetened dried cranberry polyphenols are unstable regardless of product matrix. More research is needed to determine optimal processing parameters for sweetened dried cranberries to maintain polyphenol stability as healthier food options for consumers.

The effects of surface application of amino acids on the formation of heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and meat quality properties were evaluated in pan-fried beef patties (230 °C/15 min). Tryptophan, lysine, leucine, and proline at three concentrations, 0.05%, 0.20%, and 0.50% (w/w), were tested. The meat crusts were analyzed for HCA content using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Results showed that surface application of all tested amino acids significantly reduced total HCA content (P < 0.05), and the interaction of amino acid type and concentration significantly affected (P < 0.05) both individual and total HCA formation. Tryptophan at 0.50% reduced total HCAs the most (0.92 ng/g, 93% inhibition), followed by 0.50% lysine (1.94 ng/g, 84% inhibition), while leucine (3.95 ng/g, 64% inhibition) and proline (4.71 ng/g, 56% inhibition) were less effective at 0.50%. In addition, applying amino acids to meat surface significantly influenced (P < 0.05) pH and surface color change of beef crusts; particularly, lysine at 0.20% and 0.50% increased pH and a* (redness) but reduced b* (yellowness), while tryptophan and leucine at 0.50% increased L* (whiteness). No significant effect was observed on cooking loss. Adding amino acids at 0.50% affected (P < 0.05) formation of aldehydes and pyrazines (as the key flavor compounds of fried beef). Overall, the results of this study suggested that adding amino acids to ground beef patties could effectively mitigate mutagenic HCA formation during cooking.

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) are a class of mutagenic and carcinogenic compounds generated when muscle foods are cooked at high temperatures. Exposure to HCAs has been linked to human cancers, among them colon, prostate, breast, and pancreatic cancers. 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo [4,5-b] pyridine (PhIP) is a common, potentially harmful HCA that forms via the Maillard reaction. The health consequences of consuming HCAs have caused the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) to list PhIP as a “possible human carcinogen.” Spices and flavonoid compounds have received considerable attention for their beneficial effect against HCA formation in our daily foods. In this study, a model system with 0.011 mmol glucose, 0.022 mmol creatinine, and 0.022 mmol phenylalanine in 90:10 diethylene glycol/water (v/v) was heat-treated at 180°C for 1 hour to test the formation of PhIP. Spices such as black pepper oil, piperine, D-limonene, P-cymene, and capsaicin and flavonoid compounds such as quercetin, apigenin, genistin, phlorizin, and catechin were added individually to the model system at three concentrations (125, 625, and 1250 ppm) to test their effect on PhIP formation. The PhIP contents were assessed using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). The results indicate that four out of five components of spices: black pepper oil, piperine, D-limonene, and capsaicin significantly (p < 0.05) reduced PhIP formation, while P-cymene had no significant effect on PhIP formation. All flavonoid compounds also had a significant (p < 0.05) effect on PhIP formation. These findings provide valuable information about spices and flavonoid compounds as protective agents against HCA formation.

A simple, fast, and efficient method, "enhanced matrix removal of lipids" (EMR-lipid), was proposed, optimized, and validated for identifying five polar heterocyclic amines (HCAs) in meat samples that ranged from high-protein (beef and chicken) to high-fat (pork bacon) matrices. The protocol involves an initial solid-liquid phase extraction followed by a rapid dispersive solid-phase extraction using EMR-lipid sorbents and salting-out partitioning. Acetonitrile containing formic acid at two levels (1% and 2%) efficiently extracted HCAs from different meat matrices. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) with selective reaction monitoring mode was developed for qualitative and quantitative analysis. The highest MS/MS responses and better peak separation of analytes were achieved by adjusting mobile phases to pH 3.0 with instrumental detection limits between 0.01 and 0.05 ng/mL. Good linearity of standard curves was obtained in both pure solvents and postspiked meat extracts between 0.5 and 50.0 ng/mL. The validation results showed good precision, accuracy, and sensitivity for detecting HCAs in spiked meat samples. Satisfactory recoveries of four HCAs were achieved: 65% to 111% in beef, 71% to 106% in bacon, and 42% to 77% in chicken. Matrix effects were also assessed and showed less than -20% of ion suppression in bacon extract, while a medium to high signal suppression was observed in beef (-37% to -55%) and chicken (-28% to -52%). This optimized EMR-lipid method provides acceptable results and advantages for determining trace level HCAs in complex meat matrices.

Sorghum is a versatile grain generally consumed in Asia and Africa countries but is gaining interest in the United States due to its gluten-free and bioactive compound-enriched health benefits. There are many varieties of sorghum that come in a wide range of colors. Various phytochemical pigments that reside within different components of the sorghum kernel, especially in pericarp and endosperm, contribute to these genetic factor-dependent phenotypic colors. Various pericarp pigments are reflective of the certain phytochemical levels, which may include anthocyanins, carotenoids, and condensed tannins, etc. This chapter reviews recent studies on the association of the pericarp pigments in various sorghum accessions with anthocyanins and carotenoids, respectively. It covers aspects of the potential health benefits of these colored dietary constituents, however, further investigations are warranted to clarify the diversity of theses bioactive constituent interactions with genetic and environmental factors. How these phytochemicals correlate to the sorghum pericarp pigments could be important in future use of sorghum as a functional food for potential health benefits.