Zein is a promising bioplastic for replacing polyethylene, a widely used industrial polymer. However, current processes of zein production are associated with high production costs. Replacing corn with abundantly available, underutilized, corn co‐products such as dried distillers' grains with solubles (DDGS), in addition to using a binary solvent mixture, may help to reduce the cost. Strongly alkaline and acidic extraction media are known to enhance zein yield. However, use of such corrosive conditions may shorten the life of equipment and substantially deter scalability to the industrial level. Here, we propose an innovative high‐yielding protocol that isolates zein from DDGS at milder pH and lower ethanol concentrations without significant compromise on purity. Response surface methodology was used for optimizing the extraction parameters. Purity of the extracted zein was tested using proximate analysis, gel electrophoresis, and infrared spectroscopy. Use of aqueous ethanol (63%, v/v, pH 5) at 77 °C, followed by cryoprecipitation at −20 °C, resulted in a zein product of 84% protein purity at 11.64% yield (based on DDGS dry mass). The process was scaled up to 7 L scale without significant change in yield and purity. Results of this study are important as they offer an easily scalable protocol for affordable zein production other than efficient valorization of DDGS.Novelty or Significance: Although strongly alkaline and acidic solvents help to enhance zein yield from DDGS, their use is not preferred by industry. Here, we report an innovative, environmentally friendly, zein extraction protocol, which gives higher yield at a milder pH without losing purity. Moreover, lower ethanol requirements, as compared to earlier reports, and use of inexpensive and easily scalable techniques such as precipitation, filtration, and ambient temperature air‐drying, help to reduce zein production costs and makes the protocol industrially adoptable. © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Environ Prog, 2018 © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Environ Prog, 38:e13093, 2019

Background and objectivesThe adverse health effects of advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) is of current interest; some previous research indicates that consuming these compounds may contribute to chronic diseases such as diabetes and heart disease. The objective of this study was to determine whether cereal bran extract from wheat (Jagger, JA), triticale (Spring Triticale, ST, and Thundercale, TH), and Rye (RY) can inhibit the formation of AGE in a bovine serum albumin/glucose (BSA/GLU) model. FindingsN(epsilon)-carboxymethyllysine (CML) levels showed ST extract inhibited AGE formation, but TH, RY, and JA extracts did not affect AGE formation in the BSA/GLU system. Subsequent HPLC analysis of ST extract revealed four major phenolic acids: vanillic (VA), chlorogenic (CHA), gentisic (GEA), and ferulic (FA). The results also showed antioxidant and antiglycation properties of these phenolic acids. ConclusionsGEA and CHA in ST extract were effective free radical scavengers and acted against dicarbonyl compounds. Significance and noveltyST bran extract may be considered as a natural source of inhibitors of invitro formation of AGEs.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain contains phenolic compounds that act as antioxidants when the bran is included in the human diet. Plants produce phenolics as a defense response to, among other factors, insect and fungal attack, presumably acting through systemic acquired resistance (SAR). This study investigated this hypothesis using synthetic elicitors of SAR. Elicitor solutions known to express molecular markers of SAR were sprayed on plants of the hard red winter wheat cultivars 'Karl 92' and 'Ike' at the jointing stage (Zadoks scale 31). Treatments included 50 mM thiamine, 0.5 mM riboflavin, 0.7 mM 2,6-dichloropyridine-4 carboxylic acid (DCPCA), 1 mM benzo(1,2,3)thiadiazole-7-carbothioic acid S-methyl ester (BTH), 44 mM methyl jasmonate, and 50 mM sodium salicylate (SS). Bran extracts from these plants were analyzed for total phenolic content with the Folin Ciocalteau assay. Thiamine, BTH, DCPCA, and SS treatments significantly increased total phenolic content in wheat bran extracts compared with unsprayed control plants, but only the salicylic acid analogs BTH and DCPCA enhanced the phenolic concentration by 22 and 17%, respectively, compared with solvent-only plants (P < 0.004167). These findings support the hypothesis that salicylic acid-mediated SAR is responsible for the phenolic response in wheat grains.

Advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) are formed in cooked meat products via Maillard reactions, which are seen as a contributor to chronic diseases such as diabetes and heart diseases. A number of reports have shown that natural antioxidants such as phenolic acids in grains, herbs, and spices can inhibit their formation. The objective of the study was to determine the inhibitory effects of selected wheat (Jagger, JA), triticale (Spring Triticale, ST; Thundercale, TH), and Rye (RY) bran on AGEs levels in cooked beef patties, as measured by N-epsilon-carboxymethyl lysine (CML) contents. The CML was detected in all the cooked samples, whereas the patties to which RY (42.0% inhibition), ST (27.5% inhibition), and TH (21.4% inhibition) brans were added significantly decreased CML formation. RY and ST, were more abundant in total phenolics content (TPC) and exhibit higher properties as free radical scavengers. Using Pearson's correlation and multiple linear regression analysis, the inhibition of CML in patties was correlated to the water-holding activity (WHC) of the samples, and the radical scavenging activity of the brans as measured by the 2,2-diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. These results suggest that addition of bran may be a potential method of decreasing the formation of AGE in cooked patties. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Enhancement of naturally occurring phenolic compounds with antioxidant activity in hard red winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a value addition strategy that can potentially increase the profitability of wheat crops. Phenolics are plant secondary metabolites known to be involved in defense against arthropods and pathogen attack. In this study, the effect of bird‐cherry oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi L.) feeding in wheat at different phenological stages on phenolic concentration in mature grains was investigated. Aphids were allowed to feed and reproduce for 14 d on wheat plants at the following stages of development: five tillers, 7 or 21 d postanthesis (DPA). Plants infested at the five‐tiller and 7‐DPA stages had higher free phenolic concentration than aphid‐free controls, and those moderately infested at five tillers through 35 DPA had significantly higher concentration of free and free and conjugated phenolics and 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity than aphid‐free controls (P < 0.0125). Although there were no significant differences among phenological stages, more resources were allocated to defense (i.e., free phenolic concentration) and less to growth (i.e., grain yield) when infestation started at early stages. The phenolic response was long lasting and systemic, so systemic acquired resistance was hypothesized to be the mechanism of induction. This information will aid in developing wheat crops with consistently high antioxidant levels.

The potential of hard winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L) to produce antioxidant‐rich crops has been considered as a value addition strategy to increase farm profitability, but the inherent variability in phenolics concentrations in wheat crops is a barrier. This problem also makes marketing the health‐promoting benefits of whole wheat products difficult. Although some variability is explained by genetic diversity, a significant portion is owing to stress factors such as elevated temperatures, fungal attack, and insect damage. Limited information is available on formal trials designed to investigate these relationships. In this study, wheat (Triticum aestivum L) cultivar Karl 92 was stressed by bird‐cherry oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi) feeding, leaf rust (Puccinia triticina) infection, and postanthesis high‐temperature stress. Total phenolic content (TPC) and 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity (%DPPH) of the resulting wheat bran and those of nonstressed plants were measured. Plant fitness parameters such as the number of spikes and grain yield were also evaluated. Heat‐stressed plants had the lowest number of spikes (P < 0.0151), shriveled kernels, and lowest TPC and %DPPH in wheat bran‐free (P < 0.0633, P < 0.0048) and bound (P < 0.0003, P < 0.0009) phenolic extracts. Aphid feeding explained some of the variation in TPC (P < 0.0719) and %DPPH (P < 0.0038) of free phenolic extracts, so this stress factor has potential to produce antioxidant‐rich wheat bran. Rust infection did not change the antioxidant concentration on the bran, but it showed potential to produce wheat crops with high phenolics per acreage due to high grain yield (P ≤ 0.0821).

The usage of soy meal (SM) as a protein source for young monogastric animals is limited by the presence of antinutritional factors. To address this problem, fermentation was applied to simultaneously degrade phytic acid and soy protein in SM. Aspergillus oryzae (ATCC 9362) and Aspergillus ficuum (ATCC 66876), sources of protease and thermostable phytase, respectively, were co-fermented using a two-stage temperature protocol: 36.5 °C (0–28 h), then 50 °C (28–40 h). The two-stage co-fermentation approach achieved a 17 % increase of phytic acid degradation compared to A. oryzae fermentation and 72 % increase in protein degree of hydrolysis (DH) compared to A. ficuum fermentation. The two-stage temperature fermentation produced a 27 % increase in phytic acid degradation and 90 % increase in DH compared to a single-stage fermentation. The fermented SM with reduced levels of antinutritional factors would serve as high quality feedstuff.

Valorization of each component of lignocellulosic biomass is critical for sustainability of biorefinery industries. Current biorefineries are confined to ethanol-centric processes and focus only on the carbohydrate-derived sugar using energy-intensive pretreatment methods, leading to deteriorated lignin quality for high-value applications. Organosolv fractionation is an effective method to improve hydrolysis efficiency of cellulose and extract a good quality lignin stream; however, hemicelluloses recovery is challenging if an acid catalyst is used. An alkali catalyst in the organosolv process, therefore, could be a promising alternative approach. We evaluated various organic solvents (glycerol, 2,3-butanediol, dimethyl sulfoxide, ethanol, butanol, isopropanol, acetonitrile, and water) for pretreatment of different biomass feedstocks, including corn stover (grass), poplar (hardwood), and Douglas fir (softwood) using sodium hydroxide as a catalyst. Results showed that an ethanol and isopropanol mixture led to 18 % more sugar released per gram of biomass than the control (conventional aqueous alkali pretreatment) for corn stover; a mixture of ethanol, butanol, and water was the next most effective solvent. For pretreatment of poplar biomass, glycerol and 2,3-butanediol were the most efficient solvents; glycerol pretreatment offers further process improvement opportunities. The organic solvents used in this experiment were not effective for Douglas fir. The quality of released sugars was statistically equal to that of synthetic sugars for 2,3-butanediol fermentation using Klebsiella oxytoca. This study opened up a promising route for high value application for all biomass components. Further research is needed to characterize the extracted lignin for quality evaluation.

The usage of soy protein for young monogastric animals is restricted due to potential allergens and high molecular weight. The investigation of fungi fermentation effect on soy protein has been interrupted by substrate sterilization. Virginiamycin at 0.05% was added together with Aspergillus oryzae for solid state fermentation (SSF) in unsterilized soy meal (SM). When compared to A. oryzae SSF alone, virginiamycin did not cause the interference of fungal fermentation but elucidated the protein degradation. SDS-PAGE results showed that both α and α ′ subunits of β -conglycinin were degraded significantly. In addition, western blot results showed that the immunoreactive signals of soy protein were considerably reduced in virginiamycin-added fermentation with unsterilized SM. Furthermore, fungal fermentation increased total protein and essential amino acid contents, suggesting the value enhancement of SM products. Taken together, this study demonstrated for the first time that virginiamycin could help investigate fermentation effect on heat-sensitive soy protein. Fermented SM has several potential applications in feed industry.

Processed foods are often perceived as having negative attributes, including limited nutritional value, high calorie content, increased glycemic index, and excessive amounts of sugar, salt, chemical preservatives, and/or oil. Extrusion is a technology that is widely used for processing ready-to-eat snack and breakfast cereal products. Use of fruit and vegetable by-products to improve the nutritional profile of extruded foods by delivering both fiber and antioxidants is described. In the samples tested, extrusion led to a decrease in the concentration of antioxidants (phenolic compounds and carotenoids) in expanded products containing apple and tomato pomaces. However, the free-radical scavenging capacity (antioxidant activity) increased due to processing, underscoring the potential health benefits of incorporating these ingredients.

BACKGROUNDPhytic acid of soy meal (SM) could influence protein and important mineral digestion of monogastric animals. Aspergillus oryzae (ATCC 9362) solid-state fermentation was applied to degrade phytic acid in SM. Two-stage temperature fermentation protocol was investigated to increase the degradation rate. The first stage was to maximize phytase production and the second stage was to realize the maximum enzymatic degradation.RESULTSIn the first stage, a combination of 41% moisture, a temperature of 37 °C and inoculum size of 1.7 mL in 5 g substrate (dry matter basis) favored maximum phytase production, yielding phytase activity of 58.7 U, optimized via central composite design. By the end of second-stage fermentation, 57% phytic acid was degraded from SM fermented at 50 °C, compared with 39% of that fermented at 37 °C. The nutritional profile of fermented SM was also studied. Oligosaccharides were totally removed after fermentation and 67% of total non-reducing polysaccharides were decreased. Protein content increased by 9.5%.CONCLUSIONTwo-stage temperature protocol achieved better phytic acid degradation during A. oryzae solid state fermentation. The fermented SM has lower antinutritional factors (phytic acid, oligosaccharides and non-reducing polysaccharides) and higher nutritional value for animal feed.

Soybean is the second largest acreage crop in the United States (29%), right after corn (35%) according to the American Soybean Association [1]. Soybean is widely consumed in the world, particularly in Asian countries. The various soybean products could be separated in‐ to non-fermented and fermented soybean products. The non-fermented soybean products include soymilk, tofu, yuba, soybean sprouts, okara, roasted soybeans, soynuts and soy flour, immature soybeans, cooked whole soybeans, and the fermented oriental soybean products include soy paste (Jiang and Miso), soy sauce, Tempeh, Natto, soy nuggets (Dou‐ chi), sufu. In the United States, soy oil is often used for food and biodiesel production. The soybean processing process is shown in Figure 1. After the oil extraction, the residue – flaked soy meal, is usually produced into four products (textured soy flour, soy protein con‐ centrate and soy protein isolate, 48% soy meal, soluble soy carbohydrate). The textured soy flour could be used in bakery products, meat products, infant food etc. Soy protein concen‐ trate and isolate could be used in baby food, bakery products, cereals, lunch meat etc. SSPS (soluble soybean polysaccharides) functions as a dispersing agent, stabilizer, emulsifier, and has good adhesion properties [2]. The 48% soy meal is used for animal feed. The portions of different animal usages are poultry (48%), swine (26%), beef (12%), dairy (9%), pets (2%), others (3%) [1]. Poultry and swine usages account for74%.

ABSTRACT Antinutritional factors in soy meal (SM) include trypsin inhibitor, galactooligosaccharides (GOSs), structural polysaccharides, and large‐molecular‐weight protein. These antinutritional factors limit the usage of SM for young monogastric animals. Aspergillus oryzae solid‐state fermentation was applied to eliminate these factors, and changes in physical and chemical characteristics of SM were investigated. A. oryzae –treated SM was more nutrient dependent than oxygen dependent, which was illustrated by scanning electron microscopy. After 36 h of fermentation, the concentration of GOSs (raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose) and trypsin inhibitor decreased from an initial value of 9.48 mmol/100 g to a nondetectable level. Structural polysaccharides decreased by 59% (w/w), and the degree of hydrolysis of SM protein increased from an initial value of 0.9 to 7% (w/w) through the seven‐day fermentation. Fermentation also modified nutritional factors. Protein content increased from 50.47 to 58.93% (w/w) after 36 h of fermentation. Amino acid contents were significantly enhanced. The research thoroughly studied the A. oryzae solid‐state fermentation of SM, and the resulting premium product could provide a better protein source for monogastric animals.

This study focuses on the use of restaurant waste for production of ethanol. Food wastes (corn, potatoes, and pasta) were converted to ethanol in a two‐step process: a two‐part enzymatic digestion of starch using α‐amylase and glucoamylase and then fermentation of the resulting sugars to ethanol using yeast. Because of the low initial composition of starch in the food waste, low ethanol concentrations were achieved: at best 8 mg/mL ethanol (0.8% by mass). Ethanol concentration increased with increasing enzyme dosage levels. Calculations were conducted to evaluate whether waste heat from restaurant waste could be used to drive flash vaporization to purify ethanol. If the solution produced by fermenting food waste is flashed at a temperature of 99.7°C, 77% of the ethanol is recovered in a vapor stream with 1.14 mol % ethanol (2.87 mass %). Waste heat could provide over a third of the energy for this vaporization process. If 4 mol % ethanol could be produced in the fermentation step by increasing the initial starch content in the waste solution and improving the fermentation process, then a single flash at 98.9°C will recover nearly 99% of the ethanol, giving a mass concentration of ethanol of 10.3%, which is similar to that achieved in industrial grain fermentation. © 2012 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Environ Prog, 32: 1280–1283, 2013

Yeast extract is an important ingredient in ethanol fermentation. To sustain the ethanol industry, reducing nutrient media cost is important since yeast extract alone can contribute close to 50% of the medium cost. To make the ethanol fermentation cost-effective, this study evaluated rice bran and defatted rice bran as cheap substitutes for yeast extract. Rice bran, defatted rice bran and yeast extract at 1.0, 1.5 or 2.0% were incorporated into synthetic and corn media for ethanol fermentation in shake flasks. Overall, the ethanol yields from the three sources within each concentration in corn media were not significantly different from each other suggesting that rice bran and defatted rice bran are effective substitutes for yeast extract. The ethanol yields in corn medium at 48 h for defatted rice bran, rice bran and yeast extract supplementation were 94, 108 and 102 mg/g at 1.0%, 96, 111, 82 mg/g at 1.5% and 85, 88 and 99 at 2.0% respectively. In synthetic medium, the ethanol yields due to the different nitrogen sources were significantly different at all three concentrations-rice bran yielded higher ethanol than yeast extract at 1.0% and 2.0%, but the yields were similar at 1.5%. Substitution of yeast extract with rice bran at 1.5% in corn ethanol fermentation was validated using a bench-top fermenter, and the yields were comparable in rice bran (372 mg/g) and yeast extract (366 mg/g). Rice bran can effectively substitute yeast extract in biofuel production.

Orange peels were evaluated as a fermentation feedstock, and process conditions for enhanced ethanol production were determined. Primary hydrolysis of orange peel powder (OPP) was carried out at acid concentrations from 0 to 1.0% (w/v) at 121 degrees C and 15 psi for 15 min. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis of sugars and inhibitory compounds showed a higher production of hydroxymethyfurfural and acetic acid and a decrease in sugar concentration when the acid level was beyond 0.5% (w/v). Secondary hydrolysis of pretreated biomass obtained from primary hydrolysis was carried out at 0.5% (w/v) acid. Response surface methodology using three factors and a two-level central composite design was employed to optimize the effect of pH, temperature, and fermentation time on ethanol production from OPP hydrolysate at the shake flask level. On the basis of results obtained from the optimization experiment and numerical optimization software, a validation study was carried out in a 2 L batch fermenter at pH 5.4 and a temperature of 34 degrees C for 15 h. The hydrolysate obtained from primary and secondary hydrolysis processes was fermented separately employing parameters optimized through RSM. Ethanol yields of 0.25 g/g on a biomass basis (YP/X) and 0.46 g/g on a substrate-consumed basis (YP/S) and a promising volumetric ethanol productivity of 3.37 g/L/h were attained using this process at the fermenter level, which shows promise for further scale-up studies.

Conversion of cellulosic biomass such as agricultural residues to biofuels offers major economic, environmental, and strategic benefits. Sorghum is one of the important grain crops in US. It represents a renewable resource that is currently grown on six to ten million acres in the U.S. However, at present, there is not enough scientific information and knowledge about the use of sorghum stover for biofuel production. The objective of this research was to evaluate and characterize sorghum biomass as a feedstock for ethanol production. Five types of sorghum biomass, including brown midrib (bmr) sorghum, forage sorghum, grain sorghum, photosynthesis sorghum, and sweet sorghum, were characterized and used for ethanol production. Pretreatment with dilute acid was used to increase fermentable sugars yield. The effect of sulfuric acid concentration, treatment temperature, and residence time on fermentable sugars yield were studied. AccelleraseTM 1000 was used to hydrolyze cellulose into glucose at 50 oC and pH 4.8 for 96 h.

Fermentation-derived butanol is a possible alternative to ethanol as a fungible biomass-based liquid transportation fuel. We compare the fermentation-based production of n-butanol vs. ethanol from corn or switchgrass through the liquid fuel yield in terms of the lower heating value (LHV). Industrial scale data on fermentation to n-butanol (ABE fermentation) or ethanol (yeast) establishes a baseline at this time, and puts recent advances in fermentation to butanol in perspective. A dynamic simulation demonstrates the technical, economic and policy implications.The energy yield of n-butanol is about half that of ethanol from corn or switchgrass using current ABE technology. This is a serious disadvantage for n-butanol since feedstock costs are a significant portion of the fuel price. Low yield increases n-butanol's life-cycle greenhouse gas emission for the same amount of LHV compared to ethanol. A given fermenter volume can produce only about one quarter of the LHV as n-butanol per unit time compared to ethanol. This increases capital costs. The sometimes touted advantage of n-butanol being more compatible with existing pipelines is, according to our techno-economic simulations insufficient to alter the conclusion because of the capital costs to connect plants via pipeline. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.