Background Rice is a staple food crop worldwide, and the number of tillers per plant is an important agronomic trait influencing grain yield. Consequently, investigating the molecular mechanisms regulating rice tillering is of great significance. Results This study systematically elucidated the biological function of the rice transcription factor OsbHLH148 in regulating tillering and yield formation. Through the generation of OsbHLH148-overexpressing transgenic lines, we observed a dwarf plant phenotype accompanied by a significant reduction in tiller number and a decrease of approximately 72% in grain yield per plant. OsbHLH148 protein was localized to both the cytoplasm and nucleus and exhibited a transcriptional activation activity. Integrated multi-omics analyses-including RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq), weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), and DNA affinity purification sequencing (DAP-Seq), revealed that OsbHLH148 modulates a gene network associated with protein phosphorylation, Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, and secondary metabolite biosynthesis, thereby influencing tiller development. Furthermore, we identified and validated its direct target genes, such as MYB110, OsDREB1A, RLCK174, OsCIPK23, and MRLK26. Conclusions These findings suggest that OsbHLH148 may inhibit rice tillering by regulating potential target genes involved in hormone signaling pathways (such as auxin and gibberellin), calcium signaling, and carbon and nitrogen metabolism. This study offers potential applications of these genes for improving rice yield and provides valuable genetic resources as well as a theoretical basis for molecular design breeding aimed at modifying plant architecture and enhancing productivity.

RNA 5-methylcytosine (m5C) plays an undefined role in plant antiviral defense. Here, we reveal that the wheat methyltransferase NOP2/Sun RNA methyltransferase 2 (TaNSUN2) is an RNA m5C methyltransferase recruited by eukaryotic elongation factor 1-alpha (TaeEF1A) into Chinese wheat mosaic virus (CWMV) replication complexes (VRCs). TaNSUN2 promotes the m5C modification of CWMV RNAs to stabilize them and enhance their translational efficiency. Moreover, m5C modification in RNA 3 ' untranslated region strengthens both TaeEF1A binding, promoting viral replication, and viral coat protein interaction, facilitating viral assembly. A major allele of TaNSUN2 prevents its interaction with TaeEF1A and hinders its entry into the VRCs to suppress m5C modification of viral RNAs. TaNSUN2 knockout enhances wheat resistance to CWMV and increases the weight and size of wheat grains. Our findings provide mechanistic insights into the function of RNA modifications in plant virus infection and a valuable genetic resource for future wheat breeding projects.

Microplastic accumulation caused by traditional plastic mulching can disturb plant nutrient-mining strategies. Biodegradable plastics may reduce these risks. However, the different effects of traditional and biodegradable microplastics on agroecosystems and optimal microplastic type for crop-soil systems remain largely unknown. A pot experiment was performed to identify the mechanisms underlying the effects of traditional [polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE)] and biodegradable [polycaprolactone (PCL) and polyadipate/butylene terephthalate (PBAT)] microplastics at 0%, 0.1% and 1% (w/w) in a pea-soil ecosystem. Traditional microplastics caused greater carbon allocation to shoots, while PBAT did not significantly alter dissolved organic-carbon content. NH4+-N increased with 1% (w/w) PP whereas NO3–-N decreased owing to enhanced N-acetylglucosaminidase activity with 0.1% and 1% PP and PE, and 1% PBAT during pea growth. Biodegradable microplastics enhanced microbial biomass carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus, whereas traditional microplastics gave inconsistent results. Microplastics increased the complexity of bacterial and fungal networks and impacted ecosystem functions because they may serve as labile carbon resources for soil microorganisms, stimulating organic matter decomposition. However, once labile carbon in native soils is depleted, inadequate fresh labile carbon from root exudates fails to alleviate microbial carbon limitations, resulting in peas competing with microorganisms for scarce nitrogen resources to promote its growth.

Nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat protein (NLR) can specifically recognize effector proteins secreted by pathogens, thereby initiating a strong immune response in host plants. Currently, utilizing this resistance gene to improve crop varieties is the most economically effective strategy. However, traditional identification methods are time-consuming and labor-intensive. RNA interference (RNAi) is a sequence-specific gene-silencing mechanism mediated by double-stranded RNA. This chapter provides a detailed protocol using tobacco rattle virus-mediated virus-induced gene-silencing (VIGS) screening platform in Nicotiana benthamiana for the fast identification of host NLR gene involved in viral effector-activated hypersensitive response (HR), with the turnip mosaic virus-coded nuclear inclusion protein a protease (NIa-Pro) as an example, which has been shown to activate HR in Nicotiana benthamiana.

Soil-borne wheat yellow mosaic virus (WYMV), transmitted by the Polymyxa graminis, poses a severe threat to global wheat production. Although seed microbiome is the first colonizer of the rhizosphere and root tissues, its role in defense against soil-borne WYMV remains unexplored. Here, using 12 wheat varieties with contrasting resistance to WYMV, we integrated seed microbiome characterization, culturable seed endophyte inoculation assays, hydroponic validation experiments and defense gene expression profiling, to elucidate the contribution of the seed microbiome to soil-borne viral resistance. We found that resistant varieties exhibited significantly reduced WYMV loads in both leaves (33.5

Microbial elemental utilization strategies play a crucial role in regulating soil organic carbon accumulation. However, the mechanisms of microbial metabolic limitations and elemental utilization efficiency in saline soils are unclear, limiting our understanding of how microorganisms in saline soils participate in organic carbon and nutrient cycling processes. Therefore, this study employed enzyme stoichiometry and ecological stoichiometric models to analyze the effect of microbial metabolic characteristics in agricultural and natural soils with salinity in the coastal region of eastern China. This study compared the microbial metabolic characteristics and elemental utilization efficiency in low-salinity and high-salinity soils. Based on this, we explored the contributing factors of microbial elemental utilization efficiency under different salinity conditions, integrating soil physical, chemical, and microbial properties. The results indicated that compared to those in low-salinity soils, microbial carbon and phosphorus limitations significantly increased in high-salinity soils, while microbial carbon and phosphorus utilization efficiencies decreased. In contrast, compared to those in natural soils, microbial carbon and phosphorus limitations significantly decreased in agricultural soils, leading to increased microbial carbon and phosphorus utilization efficiencies. Microbial carbon and phosphorus utilization efficiencies were influenced by available organic carbon and available phosphorus in agricultural soils, whereas microbial carbon and phosphorus limitations impacted them in natural soils, respectively. Under high-salinity conditions, soil chemical properties had the most significant effect on microbial carbon and phosphorus utilization efficiencies, while under low-salinity conditions, microbial properties and soil chemical properties were the primary influences on carbon and phosphorus utilization efficiencies, respectively. Structural equation modelling results indicated that microbial carbon limitation and phosphorus utilization efficiency were the two key factors regulating microbial carbon utilization efficiency. In summary, compared to in low-salinity soils, microbial metabolic limitations increased, and elemental utilization efficiencies decreased in high-salinity soils in the coastal region of eastern China. Therefore, revealing the patterns of microbial elemental utilization and their key influencing factors under different salinity conditions is of significant theoretical importance for guiding organic carbon accumulation and fertility enhancement in saline soils.

N 6-methyladenosine (m6A) is a prevalent and functionally significant RNA modification regulating mRNA metabolism. While m6A modification in plant mRNA is well-characterized, its role in ribosomal RNA (rRNA) function has remained largely unexplored in plants. In this article, we provide a comprehensive overview of two recent findings that Arabidopsis rRNA N(6)-adenosine-methyltransferase 5 (METTL5) specifically mediates m6A deposition at position A1771 of the 18S rRNA—an event that plays a pivotal role in ribosome assembly and translation of stress-responsive genes.

Plants possess conserved immune systems to defend against herbivorous insects. In response, insects secrete saliva to manipulate host cell biology, with many salivary proteins being species-specific. The mechanisms by which different insects, armed with distinct salivary components, counteract the conserved plant immune systems are not well understood. Here, we describe how 2 salivary effectors from the brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens and the bean bug Riptortus pedestris target pathogenesis-related germin-like proteins (GLPs) in rice and soybean. In N. lugens, NlGTSP is expressed exclusively in the salivary glands and is secreted into host plants during feeding. Its knockdown significantly reduces phloem feeding and reproduction, whereas overexpression in rice enhances insect performance and rescues NlGTSP deficiency. NlGTSP partly modulates defenses by interacting with plant GLPs and inhibiting their enzymatic activity. In R. pedestris, the salivary protein RpGDSP lacks sequence or structural similarity to NlGTSP but also targets GLPs, promoting their degradation via the ubiquitin pathway to enhance feeding. Collectively, our findings reveal a functional analogy between salivary effectors from different insects that regulate core plant defense genes through distinct mechanisms.

Plants utilize receptor-like proteins and receptor-like kinases (RLPs/RLKs) to perceive and respond to a wide variety of invading pathogens and insect herbivores. While the strategies employed by microbial pathogens to suppress plant immunity have been well characterized, it remains unclear how herbivorous insects counteract receptor-mediated defenses. Here, we show that salivary effectors evolve independently in whiteflies and planthoppers to dampen RLP4-mediated plant immunity. RLP4, as a leucine-rich repeat RLP (LRR-RLP), confers plant resistance against herbivorous insects by forming the RLP4/SOBIR1 complexes. In the whitefly Bemisia tabaci, BtRDP, the Aleyrodidae-specific salivary sheath protein, interacts with RLP4 from multiple plant species and promotes its ubiquitin-dependent degradation. Overexpression of NtRLP4 in transgenic plants exerts a detrimental effect on B. tabaci by exploiting the crosstalk between the salicylic acid and jasmonic acid pathways. Conversely, overexpression of BtRDP or silencing of NtRLP4 effectively alleviates such negative effects. In planthopper Nilaparvata lugens, the Delphacidae-restricted salivary protein NlSP104 also targets and promotes the degradation of OsRLP4 from rice plants. These findings reveal convergent evolution of salivary proteins in insects and underscore the complex interactions between plants and herbivorous insects.

As a transcriptional co-factor of E2F, DP proteins are typically involved in the regulation of plant cell-cycle-related processes. However, whether DP proteins participate in transcriptional regulation associated with plant antiviral defence remains largely unclear. This study demonstrates that NbDPB, a DP family protein in Nicotiana benthamiana, positively regulates resistance to potato virus X (PVX) by functioning as a transcription factor. Knockout of NbDPB increased plant susceptibility to PVX, while its overexpression significantly suppressed viral accumulation. Furthermore, we identified that NbDPB binds to the promoter of NbMYB (a MYB transcription factor) and positively regulates its expression. Silencing NbMYB enhanced PVX infection, whereas exogenous application of jasmonic acid (JA) and salicylic acid (SA) partially rescued this phenotype. Hormone levels of JA and SA, as well as the expression levels of their marker genes, were significantly reduced in the silenced NbMYB plants. These findings suggest that the NbDPB-NbMYB module mediates antiviral defence through the JA and SA signalling pathways. This study reveals a previously uncharacterized role of DP proteins in antiviral transcriptional regulation, indicating that they may play a crucial role in plant antiviral defence.

Plants rely on a multi-layered innate immune system to defend against abiotic and biotic, with RNA interference (RNAi) serving as a core antiviral mechanism. RNAi generates small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) that direct sequence-specific degradation and translational inhibition of viral RNAs. However, conventional strategies involving insertion of viral genes into the plant genome pose potential biosafety concerns. By contrast, RNAi-mediated silencing of endogenous host susceptibility genes offers distinct advantages, especially when combined with natural recessive resistance alleles. This chapter describes a detailed protocol for hairpin RNA (hpRNA) construct design and application, providing a practical reference for researchers screening and identifying host factors required for plant virus infection.

Abstract Viral suppressors of RNA silencing (VSRs) are crucial for viral infection. Here, we show that a wheat ( Triticum aestivum ) oligosaccharyltransferase ( TaOST1B ) is associated with resistance to Wheat yellow mosaic virus (WYMV). TaOST1B interacts with WYMV-encoded P1 and enhances the VSR function of P1 by N-glycosylating its asparagine residue at position 116. This increases intranuclear accumulation of P1 through interaction with the nuclear transport protein TaIMP-α2 and blocks the interaction between calmodulin (CaM3) and CaM-binding transcriptional activator (CaMTA3) to suppress RNA interference. Nevertheless, nonglycosylated P1 loses its VSR function and forms aggregates triggering endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and is subsequently degraded by the 26S proteasome. A natural variant of TaOST1B fails to bind P1 and regulate its N-glycosylation, which induces ER stress and proteasome-mediated degradation to attenuate WYMV infection. Our study identifies an oligosaccharyltransferases as being utilized by VSR to promote viral infection, offering insights into the arms race between plants and viruses.

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are increasingly recognized as sources of functional peptides that regulate plant development and immunity, yet little is known about whether lncRNA-encoded peptides participate in antiviral defense. Through transcriptomic analysis combined with peptide-coding potential prediction, we identified wheat lncRNA19864, which is highly expressed in wheat yellow mosaic virus (WYMV)-resistant cultivars and encodes a 39-amino-acid peptide, TaLEP1. Genetic manipulation of TaLEP1 expression revealed that TaLEP1 acts as a positive regulator of wheat resistance to WYMV. Mechanistically, TaLEP1 forms oligomers and interacts with both the host autophagy factor TaATG18a and the viral replicase NIb, thereby facilitating NIb recruitment to autophagosomes for degradation. Disruption of TaLEP1 oligomerization or TaATG18a function impaired NIb degradation and compromised TaLEP1-mediated antiviral resistance. Notably, TaLEP1 also confers resistance to other Potyviridae members, including turnip mosaic virus and soybean mosaic virus, by similarly targeting their NIb proteins for degradation. These findings demonstrate that an lncRNA-encoded peptide is involved in plant antiviral immunity and offer a potential strategy for engineering broad-spectrum virus resistance in crops.

Nutrients can modulate the survival strategies of phages (viruses that infect bacteria and regulate bacterial communities), yet their effects on phage-mediated soil organic carbon (SOC) mineralization remain poorly understood. To assess the role of phages in SOC mineralization under different soil nutrient conditions, we experimentally manipulated phage abundance in high- and low-nutrient soils. We inoculated microcosms with either active or inactive phage concentrate, followed by 35 days of incubation. In the high-nutrient soil, active phage inoculation significantly increased early CO2 release (days 2–4, 23.7% higher than inactive phages on day 2, P < 0.05), but did not change cumulative CO2 emission. This suggested phages mainly shifted the timing rather than the magnitude of C mineralization. In contrast, in the low-nutrient soil, phage effects on CO2 efflux were delayed and prolonged, with significant differences starting from day 9, and cumulative CO2 release was 14.0% higher than that of inactive phages (P < 0.05). This divergence may be related to nutrient-dependent shifts in the dominant bacterial taxon, Alicyclobacillus, which increased under active phage treatment in high-nutrient soil but decreased in low-nutrient soil. In the low-nutrient soil, phage addition exacerbated P limitation, reflected by a 26.7–56.1% increase in P-acquiring enzyme activities, which drove the mineralization of native organic matter. Overall, our findings showed that phage impacts on SOC mineralization depended on soil nutrient levels, mediated by changes in bacterial community structure and extracellular enzyme secretion. These results highlight the importance of considering nutrient context when evaluating the role of phages in soil C cycling.

By combining next-generation sequencing (NGS), reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) PCR, we sequenced from adult bean flower thrips (Megalurothrips usitatus) the near-complete genome of a previously undescribed virus (related to Anopheline-associated C virus), which we named “Megalurothrips usitatus associated virus 1” (MUaV1). The viral genome comprises two linear, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA segments, designated RNA1 (3658 nt) and RNA2 (2041 nt), which shared 35.75% and 23.74% nucleotide identity with Anopheline-associated C virus (YP_009011225.1) and chronic bee paralysis virus (ASM62179.1), respectively. According to phylogenetic analysis, MUaV1 shares the closest evolutionary relationship with Anopheline-associated C virus, followed by chronic bee paralysis virus. A clear predominance of 22 nt vsiRNAs, characteristic of Dicer-mediated siRNA processing in insects, was observed, demonstrating that MUaV1 is capable of infecting the bean flower thrips and activating its antiviral RNAi response. Our study provides the first characterization of this virus in the bean flower thrips, enhancing our understanding of the bean flower thrips virome.

Context: Planting pulses can ensure food security and sustainable agriculture through increasing soil fertility, diversification of cropping systems, and nitrogen fixation. However, increasing the yield of pulses is an unresolved challenge due to the lack of understanding of the driving factors affecting it. Research questions: To address this issue, a comprehensive analysis of the critical yield-limiting factors influencing pulse productivity is necessary. We synthesized national dataset of 304 observations across a north-south gradient of China to illustrate how climate (mean annual precipitation and temperature), soil properties (total carbon, total nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, total phosphorus, Olsen-phosphorus, pH, electrical conductivity and soil texture) and management (fertilization, mulching film, cropping system, irrigation, selection of pulse species) affect yield of five main pulses: cowpea, faba bean, mung bean, pea and adzuki bean. Results: The average yield of cowpea, faba bean, mung bean, pea and adzuki bean were 1.31, 3.35, 1.39, 2.65, 1.81 t ha- 1, respectively. The average yield change of pulses at the site level compared to the country-level is 33 % (ranging from - 74-190 %). Management, soil properties and their interaction explained 94 % of the yield variation while the contribution of climate factors was minimal in the whole dataset. The contribution of key factors to yield depends on the selection of pulse species. Farmers should select pulse species suited best to local conditions, adopt mulching, optimize irrigation and fertilization to increase the yield of pulses.

Piercing-sucking insects are a significant threat to global crop production, causing direct damage and transmitting pathogens. Conventional strategies like broad-spectrum insecticides face challenges such as pest resistance and environmental sustainability. Salivary proteins secreted during feeding are vital molecular effectors in mediating plant-insect interactions. Understanding their diverse functions is essential for developing novel, sustainable pest management strategies. This review highlights the multifaceted roles of salivary proteins in piercing-sucking insects. They are crucial for feeding (facilitating sheath formation and digestion), regulating growth and reproduction, and maintaining homeostasis. Notably, salivary proteins also modulate plant immunity, functioning as elicitors to trigger defenses or effectors to suppress them. Their functional diversity is further enhanced by evolutionary processes, including horizontal gene transfer, driving co-evolutionary dynamics between insects and plants. Salivary proteins show substantial agricultural potential as targets for RNA interference (RNAi)-based biopesticides and sources of resistance genes for engineering insect-resistant crops. Salivary proteins are critical regulators of plant-insect interactions and promising targets for next-generation pest control strategies. Future research should focus on elucidating less-explored functions, clarifying effector-receptor interactions, and employ multi-omics approaches to identify conserved targets. Translating these insights into applications, such as precision biopesticides and durable resistance in crops, will be crucial for establishing sustainable and effective crop protection systems. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

The frequency and nutrient composition of organic inputs jointly regulate soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics, but their interactive effects on microbial carbon use efficiency (CUE), priming effects (PE), and net soil C balance remain poorly understood in flooded paddy systems. We performed a 40-day incubation experiment using a 13C-labeled simulated root-exudate mixture (glucose:oxalic acid:alanine, 65:30:5) under two input modes (single substrate input vs. continuous substrate input) and four C:N:P stoichiometries. Single substrate inputs generated an early pulse in labile-C mineralization that was 39-64 % greater than under continuous addition, and mineralization rates declined with increasing nutrient supply. Single-pulse addition triggered an early peak in the metabolic quotient (qCO2) and lower tracer-based CUE, whereas continuous addition maintained steadier microbial activity and higher CUE. The C:N:P stoichiometry of the added substrate strongly controlled C partitioning: stoichiometrically balanced inputs reduced CO2-C losses and increased 13C incorporation into microbial biomass and SOC pool. Pulse inputs typically induced negative PEs, whereas continuous inputs tended to cause positive PEs. Therefore, the net C balance was consistently greater following single substrate inputs than following continuous inputs; across nutrient treatments, single pulses produced substantially larger short-term C retention. Combining 13C tracing, enzyme assays and kinetic modelling, we demonstrate that under balanced nutrient inputs, microbes respire less of the added C and allocate more into biomass and necromass, which subsequently contributes to more stable SOC pool. This study provides mechanistic guidance for using C:N:Pbalanced amendments to increase SOC retention in flooded cropping systems.

Paddy soil acidification is one of the most serious global land degradation processes, threatening the sustainable production of rice (Oryza sativa L.). Its natural drivers include acid deposition, excessive fertilization, high-yield cultivar growth, and acids secreted by rice roots. The excessive fertilization breaks the nutrient balance in the soil, largely accelerating the soil acidification and degradation. The resultant soil acidification and degradation lead to direct agricultural losses (e.g., yield reduction, nutrient leaching, increased heavy metal uptake) and indirect ecological consequences (e.g., aggravated soil-borne diseases). A series of measures, such as application of alkaline amendments, biochar and microbial agents, have been employed to alleviate paddy soil acidification, and their underlying mechanisms are illustrated. Lime (CaCO3) represents an efficient and economic-affordable reagent to remediate soil acidification. The dosage of lime usage depends on the acidification extent: “single-strength” buffer is recommended for soils with pH 5.0–6.4, while “double-strength” buffer is recommended for soils with pH < 5.0. This review provides a theoretical foundation and technical guidance for managing paddy soil acidification. Critical knowledge gaps persist in the synergistic effects of climate change, modern cropping systems, and intensive fertilization on the soil acidification. To realize sustainable management of acidified paddy soil, future efforts should integrate in situ monitoring, novel alleviation techniques, and fertilizer–water management optimization.