KEYWORDS: Genomicspersonalised medicinedirect-to-consumer genetic testingnewborn screeningpolygenic risk scorespathogenbig datade-identification

Genome editing is the precise alteration of DNA in living cells by the cutting or removal of specific sequences, sometimes followed by insertion of new sequences at the cut site. CRISPR-Cas9 has become firmly established as the genome-editing method of choice, replacing the systems that had been developed and in use since the early 1990s. The CRISPR-Cas9 system has been developed from a mechanism used in prokaryotes as a defence against bacteriophage but actually functions in cells of all types of organisms. It is widely used in research as a gene knockout and editing tool; applications in veterinary medicine (such as increased resistance to disease) and human medicine (such as correction of disease-causing mutations) are under development. In agriculture and horticulture, the potential for various aspects of crop improvement is very large. Selected aspects of this potential are presented here, with particular focus on crop quality and disease resistance. The article ends with a brief discussion of the regulatory 'environment' in the USA and the EU.

This chapter shows that there are interactions between "nature and nurture" in genes and argues that there is evidence that religious experiences can lead to behavioural changes. It discusses one medical area mainly from among the Roman Catholic and conservative evangelical faith communities, who oppose the developments. The chapter explores how advances in genetics have given parents choices in respect of genes that affect their children's health. At the population level, the average height of humans in most areas of the world has increased significantly since the beginning of the 20th century. It has been ascribed to two main factors, namely the decrease in the frequency of severe infectious diseases in childhood and the general improvement in nutrition. In the United Kingdom, licences for testing particular genes in pre-implantation genetic diagnosis are granted by the Human Fertility and Embryology Authority.

FEBS Open BioVolume 8, Issue S1 p. 80-85 FEBS Special SessionsOpen Access FEBS Special Sessions First published: 05 July 2018 https://doi.org/10.1002/2211-5463.12450AboutPDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Volume8, IssueS1Supplement: 43rd FEBS Congress, Biochemistry Forever, Prague, Czech Republic, July 7-12, 2018July 2018Pages 80-85 RelatedInformation

Biodiesel is derived from triacylglycerols (TAGs; also known as triglycerides), esters of glycerol and three fatty acids (FAs). The triacylglycerols are converted to fuel by trans-esterification with methanol. The biosynthetic pathway for triacylglycerols contains several features that are suitable targets for genetic modification and some progress has been made in that direction. In order to convert these TAGs to biodiesel, they are trans-esterified with methanol to produce fatty acid methyl esters, often referred to simply as FAME. This chapter focuses mainly on the synthesis of FAs and TAGs in relation to biodiesel production. The three main features are the cetane value, which relates to combustibility, ignition delay, and ease of starting. At present it is more cost-effective to blend different biodiesels to suit particular climates rather than to expend resources on changing the FA make-up of TAGs in individual species.

Population growth in the next few decades will increase the need for food production, while the yields of major food crops could be impacted by the changing climate and changing threats from pests and pathogens. Crop breeding, both through conventional techniques, and GM assisted breeding could help meet these challenges, if adequately supported by appropriate information on the future climate. We highlight some of the major challenges for crop breeders and growers in the coming decades, and describe the main characteristics of crop breeding techniques and other adaptation options for agriculture. We review recent uses of climate information to support crop breeding decisions and make recommendations for how this might be improved. We conclude that there is significant potential for breeders to work more closely with climate scientists and crop modellers in order to address the challenges of climate change. It is not yet clear how climate information can best be used. Fruitful areas of investigation include: provision of climate information to identify key target breeding traits and develop improved success criteria (e.g. for heat/drought stress); identification of those conditions under which multiple stress factors (for example, heat stress, mid-season drought stress, flowering drought stress, terminal drought stress) are important in breeding programmes; use of climate information to inform selection of trial sites; identification of the range of environments and locations under which crop trials should be performed (likely to be a wider range of environments than done at present); identification of appropriate duration of trials (likely to be longer than current trials, due to the importance of capturing extreme events); and definition of appropriate methods for incorporating climate information into crop breeding programmes, depending on the specific needs of the breeding programme and the strengths and weaknesses of available approaches. Better knowledge is needed on climate-related thresholds important to crop breeders, for example on the frequency and severity of extreme climate events relevant to the product profile, or to help provide tailored climate analyses (particularly for extreme events). The uncertainties inherent in climate and impact projections provide a particular challenge for translating climate science into actionable outcomes for agriculture. Further work is needed to explore relevant social and economic assumptions such as the level and distribution of real incomes, changing consumption patterns, health impacts, impacts on markets and trade, and the impact of legislation relating to conservation, the environment and climate change.

Climate change affects agricultural productivity worldwide. Increased prices of food commodities are the initial indication of drastic edible yield loss, which is expected to increase further due to global warming. This situation has compelled plant scientists to develop climate change-resilient crops, which can withstand broad-spectrum stresses such as drought, heat, cold, salinity, flood, submergence and pests, thus helping to deliver increased productivity. Genomics appears to be a promising tool for deciphering the stress responsiveness of crop species with adaptation traits or in wild relatives toward identifying underlying genes, alleles or quantitative trait loci. Molecular breeding approaches have proven helpful in enhancing the stress adaptation of crop plants, and recent advances in high-throughput sequencing and phenotyping platforms have transformed molecular breeding to genomics-assisted breeding (GAB). In view of this, the present review elaborates the progress and prospects of GAB for improving climate change resilience in crops, which is likely to play an ever increasing role in the effort to ensure global food security.

SummaryAgriculture is now facing the ‘perfect storm’ of climate change, increasing costs of fertilizer and rising food demands from a larger and wealthier human population. These factors point to a global food deficit unless the efficiency and resilience of crop production is increased. The intensification of agriculture has focused on improving production under optimized conditions, with significant agronomic inputs. Furthermore, the intensive cultivation of a limited number of crops has drastically narrowed the number of plant species humans rely on. A new agricultural paradigm is required, reducing dependence on high inputs and increasing crop diversity, yield stability and environmental resilience. Genomics offers unprecedented opportunities to increase crop yield, quality and stability of production through advanced breeding strategies, enhancing the resilience of major crops to climate variability, and increasing the productivity and range of minor crops to diversify the food supply. Here we review the state of the art of genomic‐assisted breeding for the most important staples that feed the world, and how to use and adapt such genomic tools to accelerate development of both major and minor crops with desired traits that enhance adaptation to, or mitigate the effects of climate change.

This brief chapter mentions the main structural and functional features of plant nuclei and in doing so, provides a very general introduction to other chapters in the book. It also covers aspects that are not featured elsewhere, especially the replication of nuclear DNA and the import of the replication proteins. Throughout the chapter there is an underlying theme of evolution, relating both to the similarities to and differences from the Archaea and to the possible evolutionary origins of the nucleus.

Knowledge about genes that drive the cell cycle, and about hormones and their receptors that regulate development, is growing at an impressive pace. Such knowledge has accrued both before and during the ‘-omics’ era that has enabled vast amounts of information to be obtained rapidly. Furthermore, the techniques to generate these data are ever improving. However, interfacing such impressive banks of data still remains a challenge if we are to move forward to design the crops of tomorrow. This Special Issue of Annals of Botany collates a series of reviews and papers in which the authors grapple with different aspects of the interfaces between the plant cell cycle, plant hormones and plant development. The papers follow an order based on the key cell cycle transitions, G2/M and G1/S. The Special Issue begins with a brief commentary on the G2/M transition in the plant cell cycle (Francis, 2011), followed by a much more detailed consideration of G2/M control and interfaces with both plant hormones and nutrients (Lipavska et al., 2011). We have taken the conventional view of hormones, although we note that Tony Trewavas states that ‘Sucrose is the only true plant hormone!’ (A. J. Trewavas, University of Edinburgh, pers. comm.). Next up, are two research papers (Yang et al., 2011, and Pignocchi and Doonan, 2011) that investigate cyclins and their interactions with microtubular apparatus, followed by a review of protein interactions with nuclear architecture (Evans et al., 2011). The focus is then on DNA replication with reviews on initiation points of replication in eukaryotes (Bryant and Aves, 2011) and the role of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (Strzalka and Ziemienowicz, 2011). Negative regulation of the cell cycle features in the next paper (Torres Acosta et al., 2011 et al.), followed by endoreduplication with special reference to plant growth regulators that regulate fruit development (Chevallier et al., 2011). A special group of cell cycle-regulated metallopetidases is the topic of the next paper (Peer, 2011), followed by a paper on cell cycle checkpoints in higher plants (Spadafora et al., 2011). A wide ranging review of cell cycle interfaces with hormones and calcium signalling is next (Dudits et al., 2011). Interfaces without form and function are rather like strawberries without cream and the next contributions are two reviews on development. The first discusses the interface of auxins and cytokinins with bud growth and overall shoot development (Műller and Leyser, 2011); the second is a review about root form and function (Rost, 2011). Both reviews are challenging conceptually and both provide many examples of the type of integrative knowledge that will be necessary in future plant cell cycle research. These are followed by a paper that examines the interface between mitotic CDKs, auxins and cytokinins in root apical meristems (Chiappetta et al., 2011), and finally interfaces between cell cycle control and plant hormones are reviewed in the context of endosperm development (Rijavec et al., 2011). All the papers in this Special Issue have been assessed through the Annals of Botany peer-review procedure whereby each paper was assessed by two reviewers via the two editors. Where either of us appears as an author, those manuscripts were handled by the Chief Editor.

BACKGROUND:The initiation of DNA replication is a very important and highly regulated step in the cell division cycle. It is of interest to compare different groups of eukaryotic organisms (a) to identify the essential molecular events that occur in all eukaryotes, (b) to start to identify higher-level regulatory mechanisms that are specific to particular groups and (c) to gain insights into the evolution of initiation mechanisms.SCOPE:This review features a wide-ranging literature survey covering replication origins, origin recognition and usage, modification of origin usage (especially in response to plant hormones), assembly of the pre-replication complex, loading of the replisome, genomics, and the likely origin of these mechanisms and proteins in Archaea.CONCLUSIONS:In all eukaryotes, chromatin is organized for DNA replication as multiple replicons. In each replicon, replication is initiated at an origin. With the exception of those in budding yeast, replication origins, including the only one to be isolated so far from a plant, do not appear to embody a specific sequence; rather, they are AT-rich, with short tracts of locally bent DNA. The proteins involved in initiation are remarkably similar across the range of eukaryotes. Nevertheless, their activity may be modified by plant-specific mechanisms, including regulation by plant hormones. The molecular features of initiation are seen in a much simpler form in the Archaea. In particular, where eukaryotes possess a number of closely related proteins that form 'hetero-complexes' (such as the origin recognition complex and the MCM complex), archaeans typically possess one type of protein (e.g. one MCM) that forms a homo-complex. This suggests that several eukaryotic initiation proteins have evolved from archaeal ancestors by gene duplication and divergence.