ABSTRACT Background and Objectives Driven by increasing consumer demand for nutrient‐dense and more sustainable food options, ancient wheat species present a promising opportunity due to their environmental adaptability and perceived health benefits. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the starch and protein characteristics of ancient wheat species, einkorn, emmer, and spelt, in comparison to common hexaploid wheat, providing insights into their functionality for potential food applications. Findings Thermal behavior revealed that spelt exhibited the highest thermal stability with high transition temperatures. At the same time, emmer required less energy for gelatinization. Amylose% and amylopectin% showed no significant differences among these wheat species. Protein composition analysis indicated significant variations, mainly in gliadin and glutenin fractions, among common wheat and ancient wheat species. The SDS unextractable glutenin levels were significantly lower in ancient wheat compared to common wheat, suggesting that processing modifications may be required to optimize the use of ancient wheat in bakery applications. Conclusions Specific physicochemical properties and functional characteristics of ancient grains need further studies and improvements to make such grains functional in bakery applications. Significance and Novelty The study evaluates the starch and proteins of ancient grains, which demonstrate significant differences compared to hexaploid bread wheat.

Background and Objectives The recent trend towards healthy food choices and sustainable agriculture has revived interest in underutilized wheat species such as emmer, einkorn, and spelt. Given these developments, the objective of the study was to compare the differences in chemical composition and digestibility characteristics among commercially available flour samples representing ancient wheat species.Findings Einkorn demonstrated higher protein (21.27%) and phenolic acids (free and conjugated) along with lower starch levels than other samples. Notably, its starch digestibility was marked by lower glucose release and reduced rapidly digestible starch (RDS) levels, which may partly reflect its lower starch content, while refined flour from common wheat exhibited the highest RDS with glucose release. Among the ancient wheat species, the highest glucose release was observed in emmer, which also had the highest content of RDS. In vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) was highest in refined flour (86.05%), with einkorn closely following at 84.29%. Both spelt and emmer exhibited lower IVPD values compared to common wheat samples and einkorn. Spelt was characterized by its significant level of bound phenolic acid content followed by einkorn.Conclusions The variation in chemical composition, particularly in einkorn with its higher protein and phenolic acid content, combined with its digestibility profile, highlights its potential nutritional and functional relevance.Significance and Novelty These findings emphasize the importance of further research on underutilized grains to fully comprehend their nutritional value.

Sourdough fermentation, an ancient food bioprocessing technology, has attracted renewed attention for its positive impact on the nutritional profile and sensory attributes of leavened baked products. This process relies on the symbiotic activity between lactic acid bacteria and yeasts, which leads to acidification, proteolysis, enzyme activation, and metabolite synthesis, altering the dough and the final product. Growing consumer demand for healthy foods has prompted researchers and manufacturers to explore sourdough technology for the development of nutritious and functional baked goods with health benefits. This review provides a critical synthesis of current knowledge, with particular emphasis on linking fermentation mechanisms to nutritional outcomes and their relevance in modern food systems. Specifically, the multifaceted influence of sourdough technology on several macronutrients is explored. Previous research indicates that sourdough fermentation can lower the glycemic response, enhance protein digestibility, increase phenolic compounds, and improve mineral bioavailability. Despite these promising effects, the mechanistic basis underlying such nutritional improvements remains underexplored, particularly under controlled and industrial processing conditions. This review highlights key research gaps, including the scalability of sourdough production for nutritious food development and the specific fermentation mechanisms that promote human health. Variability in fermentation practices across artisanal and industrial settings further complicates the reproducibility of these effects. Addressing these gaps through supplemental research is essential both for consumers seeking healthy food options and for the food industry as it aims to innovate and meet market demands. © 2026 The Author(s). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Fortifying traditional wheat-based products can diversify bakery applications and enhance the use of complementary grains in the food industry. Unlike common wheat, intermediate wheatgrass (IWG) is a perennial grain that is reported to have higher protein, fiber, and ash content. To maximize the use of IWG in bakery applications, this research investigates the functionality and nutritional quality of a variety of wheat-based flatbread, noodle, pasta, and cookies, with the incorporation of different degrees of wholemeal IWG. IWG at 25% incorporation for flatbread, 75% incorporation for noodle, 50% for pasta, and 50% for cookie formulations resulted in products with quality attributes comparable to the control formulations, indicating its potential to be used in specific product formulations. Incorporation of IWG resulted in decreased glucose release over time and increased protein digestibility.Practical Applications This article contributes to the growing body of research identifying additional end use applications for IWG aside from bread formulations. IWG from the Canadian prairies has not been extensively studied and this work provides a comprehensive overview of the functional properties and composition of IWG grown in the region.

Free asparagine is the key precursor of acrylamide, a heat-induced contaminant of concern in wheat-based foods. Although genotype is known to influence free asparagine accumulation, limited information is available on how historical and modern Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) wheat cultivars differ in free asparagine content across growing years. Understanding the influence of genotype on asparagine accumulation is essential for identifying wheat cultivars with inherently low levels. In this study, 40 CWRS wheat cultivars released between 1860 and 2018 were evaluated over two growing years (2020 and 2021) to determine the effect of genotype on free asparagine content and its relationship with selected wheat quality characteristics. Asparagine levels varied widely, ranging from 19.14 to 326.27 μg g−1 in 2020 and from 90.63 to 712.97 μg g−1 in 2021, showing notable numerical variation between growing years. Cultivar effect was significant, with AC Intrepid showing the highest asparagine content and Unity VB the lowest; however, most cultivars fell within overlapping ranges. Protein composition differed among cultivars, but these differences were not strongly associated with asparagine content. Pedigree-based clustering grouped cultivars broadly according to shared ancestry rather than release year and did not clearly align with asparagine-based clusters, indicating that parentage alone was not directly associated with asparagine levels. Correlation analysis showed a weak negative relationship between asparagine and protein or ash, with no meaningful associations with moisture, starch, fibre, or mixograph parameters. Overall, free asparagine in CWRS wheat was influenced by genotype, with no consistent trend across release years. These findings highlight the need to further evaluate environmental factors and identify cultivars that maintain consistently low asparagine levels under varying conditions.

The objective of this study was to improve the overall breadmaking characteristics of ancient wheat species through emulsifier treatment, extrusion processing, and by the synergistic effect of these two approaches. Ancient wheat flours were treated with four emulsifiers—distilled monoglycerides (DMG), diacetyl tartaric acid ester of monoglycerides (DATEM), sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL), and defatted soy lecithin—at three different concentrations. Extrusion was conducted at three different screw speeds (100, 150, and 200 rpm) with a constant moisture content of 30%. Following these different treatments, pasting, mixing, and thermal properties of the flour samples were examined. Concomitantly, whole grain breadmaking was conducted by combining the treated flours with base flour. SSL at 0.45% increased pasting viscosities and enhanced dough handling properties in einkorn and spelt flour samples. Extrusion, in general, significantly ( p < 0.05) increased water absorption value by inducing starch damage. Extrusion impacted the dough stability and dough development time negatively with increasing intensity. The increase in extrusion intensity also negatively affected the pasting parameters of extruded flour by complete gelatinization and loss of crystallinity. The water absorption value of extrudate‐added bread dough increased significantly ( p < 0.05 ). However, emulsifier treatment or extrudate‐added flour did not improve breadmaking attributes of emmer bread. The overall volumes of emulsifier‐treated (50%) einkorn and emmer breads were higher than that of base flour bread. Overall, our findings indicated that optimizing the combination of emulsifier treatment and extrusion can potentially improve dough handling and breadmaking properties of ancient wheat species.

Background and Objectives: Ancient grains like einkorn, emmer, and spelt remain underutilized and underexplored, limiting their market potential. This study evaluates the chemical composition, rheology, pasting, and baking properties of spring growth habit einkorn, emmer, and spelt cultivars grown in the Canadian prairies compared to wholemeal and refined hexaploid wheat. Findings: Einkorn cultivars (CDC Aixe and CDC Marval) had inferior dough mixing properties and the lowest bread loaf volume. CDC Tatra (emmer) bread had a significantly (p < .05) higher specific volume (3.32 mL/g) than Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) wholemeal bread. Conclusions: Results from mixing and baking indicate that emmer and spelt cultivars have the potential to be used in breadmaking applications, while einkorn cultivars with suboptimal properties need ingredient technology and process modifications to improve their functionalities. Significance and Novelty: The study was able to identify and characterize an emmer cultivar (CDC Tatra) with excellent mixing and baking properties having the potential as a standalone flour for baking applications. This represents a significant advancement, as prior research had not recognized any emmer cultivars for their suitability in baking. Our results highlight that cultivar-based assessment is essential in evaluating the end-use quality of ancient grain species, thereby developing products using such underutilized grains.

Background and ObjectivesRefrigerated dough products offer convenience, but are often produced using refined flour. However, wholewheat flour-based products provide health benefits by increasing dietary fiber intake. This study aims to determine the optimal flour protein content for developing clean label refrigerated dough using wholegrain Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) wheat. Three CWRS wheat samples with varying protein contents: Sample 1-Average Protein (S1-AP) (13.30%), Sample 2-Intermediate High Protein (S2-IHP) (14.91%), and Sample 3-High Protein (S3-HP) (16.48%), were analyzed. The proximate composition of wholegrain flour samples was determined using standard methods. Dough mixing and starch pasting properties were evaluated using micro-dough LAB and RVA, respectively. Dough samples were prepared and stored at 4 degrees C for 35 days, with subsets baked and assessed for end-use quality every 7 days. Xylanase activity and dough syruping were monitored throughout storage.FindingsS3-HP exhibited reduced starch pasting properties, shorter dough development time, and lower stability. S2-IHP demonstrated better mixing stability and lower mixing tolerance index, indicating superior dough handling properties. Xylanase activity was highest in S1-AP at 35 days and lowest in S2-IHP. Dough syruping increased significantly during the first 14 days and stabilized thereafter. Bread quality declined with storage, with volume decreasing and firmness increasing, especially in S1-AP. Lightness (L*) decreased over time in all samples.ConclusionsS2-IHP, which showed intermediate/moderately high protein content, was identified as the most suitable for wholegrain refrigerated dough, as it maintained superior end-use quality characteristics compared to the other samples.Significance and NoveltyThis study provides insights into the impact of flour protein content on the functionality and storage stability of wholegrain refrigerated dough, aiding in the development of clean label products with improved quality and processing characteristics.

Bread is a widely consumed staple food across the world; however, it often lacks a complete amino acid profile. This study aims to determine the suitability of commercially available plant protein isolates for the development of protein-enriched wholewheat bread, while preserving desired quality characteristics. Three protein isolates, soy protein isolate (SPI), pea protein isolate 1 (PPI1), and pea protein isolate 2 (PPI2), were assessed for their structural and functional properties, then incorporated in wholegrain bread formulations at 5%, 10%, and 15%, followed by assessment of dough properties and end-use baking quality. The protein content of the isolates ranged from 80% to 90%, with PPI2 having the highest protein concentration. SPI had the highest denaturation temperature at 85.54°C ± 0.31°C and exhibited superior foam and emulsion stability at 81.94% and 94.21%, respectively. PPI1 had the highest solubility at 20.85%, whereas PPI2 had the highest surface hydrophobicity value at 152,645. Additionally, SPI formed the strongest gels with the lowest minimum gelation concentration of 12%. Increasing the protein concentration in the bread formulations resulted in a decrease in firmness, loaf volume, and specific volume. Breads with the 5% SPI had the highest loaf volume of 342 ± 7.6 mL, favorable textural properties, and L* values of 39.40 ± 2.13 for the crust and 45.83 ± 1.57 for the crumb, making it the more suitable protein isolate for protein-enriched bakery applications. The addition of plant-based proteins presents a viable solution for addressing the increasing consumer demand for both nutritious and sustainable food options.

Greater consumer demand for sustainable, nutrient-dense grains has inreased research emphasis on underutilized wheat species, such as ancient grains. However, these wheat species have different physicochemical qualities, in comparison to conventional hexaploid bread wheat. Consequently, the end-product quality of baked products developed using ancient wheat species is inferior to those that use common hexaploid bread wheat. In this review, approaches that can be used to enhance the functionality of ancient grains are explored as resolving these limitations is essential for expanding the use of these underutilized grains in bakery applications. An evaluation of the current literature suggests a need to examine existing ingredient technology-related solutions and processing techniques, as well as their anticipated impacts on the functionalities of these underutilized wheat species, for development of value-added bakery products. Furthermore, the findings indicate that an in-depth understanding of the physicochemical properties of ancient grains and the impact of different functionality enhancement techniques on the chemistry of these grains is essential to successfully utilize different ingredient technologies and processing techniques. Therefore, this is an area of research that needs further investigations, especially from an underutilized grains standpoint, to fully unravel the potential of these grains in different bakery applications.

Cereals are recognized for their rich nutritional profile, comprised of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fiber, and essential vitamins. Foremost, cereals play a crucial role as an abundant source of proteins, highlighting their nutritional significance. In the context of global food security concerns, cereal-based proteins stand out as a resource efficient solution with advantageous agronomic traits and environmental sustainability. In response to expanding global needs, the strategic utilization of cereal-based proteins is crucial. The preparation of cereals involves diverse processing methods, encompassing mechanical, biological, thermal, and non-thermal techniques. Furthermore, a variety of protein modification techniques have been widely used to enhance the nutritional quality of cereals. Responding to changing consumer preferences for health and sustainability, the cereal industry is undergoing significant transformations, with a growing demand for nutritious and convenient options, including gluten-free and plant-based alternatives. Future strategies for improving the quality and acceptance of cereal-based food products revolve around sustainable processing, by-product valorization, flavor and color modifications, shelf-life extension, nutrition enhancement, and cost reduction. This dynamic landscape reflects a shift in consumer choices and the commitment of industry to meeting evolving demands.

Oat (Avena sativa) is valued for its high protein content of 15–20% and potential health benefits. Oat also contains a notable lipid content, ranging from 6% to 10%, which can lead to rapid oxidation and rancidity, lowering product shelf life. Thus, defatting is imperative for the production of high-quality oat-based ingredients. This study focuses on evaluating the impact of various defatting techniques, including hexane-based defatting, supercritical carbon dioxide extraction, and supercritical carbon dioxide extraction with ethanol, on the structural and functional characteristics of oat protein isolate. Oat protein isolate was produced through alkaline extraction-isoelectric precipitation and assessed for its proximate composition, structural characteristics, encompassing protein profile, surface hydrophobicity, denaturation, and functional properties, including solubility, foaming capacity, and emulsification. Our results indicate that supercritical fluid methods are promising in their effectiveness in defatting oat flour although characteristics such as protein purity and solubility need improvement. Nevertheless, supercritical carbon dioxide defatting methods were found to yield oat protein with functional and structural properties closely comparable to the hexane-based method. In conclusion, given the environmental impacts associated with hexane, supercritical defatting methods can be further optimized and used as an eco-friendly alternative to conventional solvent-based fat extraction techniques.

Background and Objectives: Intermediate wheatgrass (IWG) is an underutilized perennial grain in the Canadian market with excellent nutritional and environmental benefits. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of the growing environment on the physiochemical and functional properties of IWG grown in three different growing locations in the Canadian prairies. IWG flours were compared between growing locations and years as well as alongside Canada Western Red Spring Wheat whole meal (CWRS-WM) and refined flour. Findings: The proximate composition of IWG flours between years and growing locations had significant (p < .05) differences for protein, fiber, and ash content but showed little difference for starch content. Owing to differences in proximate composition, variances in mixing parameters, starch pasting properties, and protein profiles were observed. Overall IWG performed poorly in a bread system at 100% incorporation largely due to its lack of high molecular weight glutenin. Conclusion: Understanding the impacts that growing location and year have on the proximate composition and therefore working parameters will aid in the development of new wheat products fortified with IWG. These products will contribute to a more resilient and diverse food system, that will provide nutrient-dense food options for consumers. Significance and Novelty: There is very limited research on IWG grown in the Canadian prairies, and this study is among the first studies focused on characterizing IWG grown in Canada.

Wheat is fundamental to human civilization and has played a prominent role in feeding the world and enhancing food security globally. As a staple food commodity, wheat contributes a significant portion of the human daily caloric intake in many parts of the world. However, given the need for diversifying the global food system, there is an increasing interest in identifying wheat species which are healthy and can be grown sustainably. The earliest cultivated forms of wheat (einkorn, emmer, and spelt) have been reintroduced recently for their potential for producing nutritionally rich food products with exceptional health benefits. Several studies revealed notable differences in the nutritional composition of ancient wheat compared to common wheat particularly in terms of protein and starch content, dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins. Additionally, ancient wheat exhibited higher levels of bioactive compounds, such as phenolics and carotenoids, which are associated with potential health-promoting effects. Furthermore, investigations into the structural and physicochemical properties of ancient wheat demonstrated distinct characteristics, predominantly the variations in gluten protein composition, potentially leading to differences in dough rheology and breadmaking qualities. This review consolidates current knowledge on the nutritional characteristics and structural and physicochemical properties of ancient wheat species, providing valuable insights into their potential significance. Exploring ancient wheat facilitates the development of novel food products which could ultimately promote a healthy and sustainable food system.

The effect of genotype and environment on oat protein composition was analyzed through size exclusion-high-performance liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) to characterize oat protein isolate (OPI) extracted from three genotypes grown at three locations in the Canadian Prairies. SE-HPLC identified four fractions in OPI, including polymeric globulins, avenins, glutelins, and albumins, and smaller proteins. The protein composition was dependent on the environment, rather than the genotype. The proteins identified through LC-MS were grouped into eight categories, including globulins, prolamins/avenins, glutelins, enzymes/albumins, enzyme inhibitors, heat shock proteins, grain softness proteins, and allergenic proteins. Three main globulin protein types were also identified, including the P14812|SSG2-12S seed storage globulin, the Q6UJY8_TRITU-globulin, and the M7ZQM3_TRIUA-Globulin-1 S. Principal component analysis indicated that samples from Manitoba showed a positive association with the M7ZQM3_TRIUA-Globulin-1 S allele and Q6UJY8_TRITU-globulin, while samples from Alberta and Saskatchewan had a negative association with them. The results show that the influence of G × E on oat protein fractions and their relative composition is crucial to understanding genotypes' behavior in response to different environments.

Oats are recognized to provide many health benefits that are mainly associated with its dietary fibre, β-glucan. However, the protein derived from oats is largely understudied with respect to its ability to maintain health and attenuate risk factors of chronic diseases. The goal of the current study was to investigate the metabolic effects of oat protein consumption in lieu of casein as the protein source in high fat, high sucrose (HF/HS) fed Wistar rats. Four-week-old rats were divided into three groups and were fed three different experimental diets: a control diet with casein as the protein source, an HF/HS diet with casein, or an HF/HS diet with oat protein for 16 weeks. Heart structure and function were determined by echocardiography. Blood pressure measurements, an oral glucose tolerance test, and markers of cholesterol metabolism, oxidative stress, inflammation, and liver and kidney damage were also performed. Our study results show that incorporation of oat protein in the diet was effective in preserving systolic heart function in HF/HS fed rats. Oat protein significantly reduced serum total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. Furthermore, oat protein normalized liver HMG-CoAR activity, which, to our knowledge, is the first time this has been reported in the literature. Therefore, our research suggests that oat protein can provide hypocholesterolemic and cardioprotective benefits in a diet-induced model of metabolic syndrome.

Background and ObjectivesThe effect of genotype x environment (G x E) on oat protein structural characteristics and functionality was studied using three oat genotypes grown in three different environments across the Canadian Prairies. FindingsThe protein content of oat protein isolate (OPI) ranged from 76.9% to 90.2%. All structural characteristics except protein surface hydrophobicity were significantly impacted by G x E, whereas protein surface hydrophobicity strongly depended on the growing environment. SDS-PAGE and FT-IR analysis demonstrated that oat protein profile and secondary structure were significantly impacted by genotype rather than environment. Cultivar Summit grown in Alberta had the highest foaming capacity which was significantly higher than Summit grown in the other environments, indicating a strong influence of environment on OPI foaming capacity. ConclusionThe structure-function properties of OPI extracted from the given cultivars were influenced by G x E however, further studies are needed to evaluate the stability of the tested cultivars over several years. Significance and NoveltyUnderstanding how OPI structure and functional properties are influenced by G x E will allow better utilization of OPI in the food industry by facilitating the development of OPI ingredients with predictable functional properties.

Pulses and whole grains are considered staple foods that provide a significant amount of calories, fibre and protein, making them key food sources in a nutritionally balanced diet. Additionally, pulses and whole grains contain many bioactive compounds such as dietary fibre, resistant starch, phenolic compounds and mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids that are known to combat chronic disease. Notably, recent research has demonstrated that protein derived from pulse and whole grain sources contains bioactive peptides that also possess disease-fighting properties. Mechanisms of action include inhibition or alteration of enzyme activities, vasodilatation, modulation of lipid metabolism and gut microbiome and oxidative stress reduction. Consumer demand for plant-based proteins has skyrocketed primarily based on the perceived health benefits and lower carbon footprint of consuming foods from plant sources versus animal. Therefore, more research should be invested in discovering the health-promoting effects that pulse and whole grain proteins have to offer.