Women remain underrepresented in U.S. policing, and academy-based basic law enforcement training (BLET) may function as an early gendered gateway into the occupation. Using all five waves of the Bureau of Justice Statistics' Census of Law Enforcement Training Academies (CLETA) (2002-2022), we constructed a longitudinal panel of 413 academies and examined gendered entry, completion, and non-completion over time. Descriptively, women comprised 17% of recruits overall, increasing to nearly 20% by 2022, yet women completed BLET at lower rates than men in every wave (81.6% vs. 88.1% pooled), with women's completion rates lowest in 2018 and 2022. Mixed-effects negative binomial models indicate that although many academy characteristics similarly predict non-completion for men and women, scenario-based assessment of trainees is uniquely associated with lower female non-completion. Findings suggest that recruitment gains for women may be offset by gendered academy attrition, underscoring the academy's role in shaping women's representation in policing.

The measurement of procedural justice has received some meaningful examination, but research has yet to demonstrate measurement invariance, item invariance, or the measurement properties of people in prison's perceptions of correctional officer procedural justice. Demonstrating measurement invariance provides evidence that items included in a proposed construct are responded to similarly by different groups of people. In this study we provide evidence of measurement invariance of a five-item measure of prison procedural justice across sex, race/ethnicity, age, time in prison, and security level. However, given data limitations, some questions remain regarding the applicability of the proposed measure across sex and security level, specifically females incarcerated in maximum-security facilities. As applications of procedural justice move beyond policing, it is important we understand how to reliably measure procedural justice in other criminal justice contexts and have measures empirically shown to be reliable and valid for future research. This study offers researchers with such a construct in the form of a short, reliable measure of people in prison's perceptions of correctional officer procedural justice.

Research SummaryUsing secondary data from a census of 421 police academies nationwide continuously operating between 2002 and 2018, we assessed continuity and change in core areas of basic law enforcement training (BLET) of new police hires. Despite decades of concerns expressed by national-level commissions, scholars, and practitioners about the substance of police academy basic training, ours is the first study since the 1980s that examines the content of basic training at multiple police academies during an extended period that included two eras of policing: community oriented and evidence based. Results showed continuity throughout time in total required hours of BLET, including required hours of core curriculum training, and a disproportionate distribution of total training hours allotted to areas central to the crime fighter persona of the early 20th century professional era.Policy ImplicationsThis assessment revealed strong empirical evidence of long-term resistance to change in police basic training based on continuing overemphasis of traditional aspects of basic training (e.g., use of lethal weapons) over other parts (e.g., community-oriented policing). Our results, combined with recent qualitative analyses of police basic training revealing a primary "danger imperative" message broadcast to trainees by instructors along with more subtle racist and sexist messages about "bad guys" wanting to kill cops, reveal that decades of efforts to get the occupation to change what new police officers learn during basic training is apparently the equivalent of what Dorothy Guyot once termed "bending granite"-an effort doomed to fail. To weaken the granite, police practitioners and leaders involved with training must take steps toward a complete and comprehensive reorientation of police recruitment and basic training that stresses the importance of new hires acquiring a toolkit that has a guardian-based foundation and emphasis but allows for the rare instances when officers need to use warrior tools.

Drugs in prison can have serious consequences for prisoners, staff, and communities. In this study, we employed a natural experimental design to assess the systemic effects of the policy changes introduced by the Oregon Department of Corrections in March 2020 to slow the spread of coronavirus-2019 (COVID-19) on the measures of drug use and misconduct (e.g., suspended visits, precluded nonsecurity staff from entering facilities, stopped prisoner work release assignments). More specifically, we conducted interrupted time-series analyses to evaluate whether the policy changes corresponded to changes in the aggregate rates of positive urinalysis tests and drug-related misconduct. The results revealed statistically significant decreases in the rates of positive drug tests and misconduct system wide after the COVID-19 policy changes. Research and policy implications are discussed.

Introduction: Self-directed violence (SDV), comprising both non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and suicide, is elevated among sexual minority populations. NSSI age of onset has been shown to impact severity of SDV outcomes. Components of the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide (ITS), which includes perceived burdensomeness (PB), thwarted belongingness (TB), and acquired capability for suicide (ACS), may be useful to understanding NSSI subgroups, especially among under-researched groups such as sexual minority persons. Methods: This study examined subtypes of NSSI and associations with constructs from the ITS. A sample of 473 sexual minority young adults with a history of NSSI completed self-report measures assessing demographics, SDV, and ITS constructs. More than half of the sample (59.7%) reported engaging in NSSI during their lifetime. For suicidal thoughts and behaviors, a majority of the sample reported having thoughts of suicide in their lifetime (87.3%), and one-third reported a lifetime suicide attempt (33.0%). Results: Latent class analysis revealed three classes: (1) lower NSSI, (2) moderate NSSI, and (3) higher NSSI. NSSI age of onset, intensity of suicidal thoughts, suicide plan likelihood, duration of NSSI, and number of NSSI methods differentiated groups. Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) revealed that the lower NSSI group reported lower PB and TB than the moderate NSSI group. No differences were found for ACS across NSSI classes. Discussion: Results are discussed in terms of their theoretical implications and application for counseling at-risk sexual minority young adults. This study identifies factors associated with subgroups of self-directed violence among sexual minority young adults. Such findings inform gaps in self-directed violence prevention research and clinical practice for sexual minority persons.

The Life Attitudes Schedule-Short Form (LAS-SF) is a measure of suicide proneness featuring various conceptual models. We tested four competing LAS-SF factor structures, as well as construct validity with mental health and suicide metrics. Community dwelling adults (N = 488) completed an online cross-sectional survey. Results supported a four factor (i.e., death-related, health-related, injury-related, and self-related subscales) LAS-SF structure with one higher order factor. Death-related, injury-related, and self-related subscales demonstrated moderate positive associations with mental health and suicidal ideation. Death-related and self-related subscales showed links with suicidal ideation, as well as suicide and depression risk (controlling for other factors). This study is important in highlighting suicide proneness theory may need to be refined. LAS-SF uses include possible risk screening in clinical settings and future focus on the psychological death aspects of the LAS-SF in prospective research. Study limitations include lack of sample diversity and cross-sectional design.

This study empirically examines situational and personal characteristics associated with victims’ responses to cyberstalking. In the context of these responses, there has been much debate regarding the “fear standard,” which requires victims or reasonable persons to feel fearful as a result of stalking. To examine victim responses to cyberstalking, survey data were collected from 880 young adults in the U.S. who were repeatedly pursued online (cyberstalked) within the previous year. Findings revealed that the majority (67.84%) of respondents did not feel fear in response to the repeated online pursuit. However, approximately half (50.23%) did experience a substantial (non-fear) emotional response. Multivariate findings identified situational and victim characteristics that impacted the reactions experienced, and these effects varied by type of reaction. The results indicate that definitions requiring fear underestimate the prevalence of cyberstalking.

Entrapment and defeat are empirically-supported suicide risk factors. Their measurement is the subject of some debate, however. Also, limited work exists examining sexual and gender minority (SGM) differences in these suicide risk factors despite overall elevated rates of suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs) for SGM persons. The present study examined (1) entrapment and defeat differences by sexual orientation and gender identity, (2) factor structure and criterion validity of the Entrapment Scale (E-Scale) and the Defeat Scale (D-Scale), and (3) measurement invariance by sexual orientation (subsamples were too small for gender identity). A sample of 1,027 adults living in the United Kingdom completed a cross-sectional online questionnaire assessing mental health. Analysis of Variance and Kruskal-Wallis testing revealed: (1) all sexual minority (i.e., gay/lesbian, bisexual, and other SM) persons reported higher internal and external entrapment, defeat, and suicidal ideation compared to their heterosexual counterparts, and; (2) gender minority (i.e., transgender and gender diverse) persons reported higher internal and external entrapment, defeat, and suicidal ideation compared to cisgender persons. Supported by suicide theory, confirmatory factor analysis showed modest support for a two-factor E-Scale (internal and external), and a one-factor D-Scale. All entrapment and defeat scores displayed significant moderate positive correlations with suicidal ideation. E- and D-scale scores displayed high intercorrelation, tempering confidence in conclusions regarding the facture structure findings. Item threshold-level responding varied by sexual orientation for the D-Scale but not the E-Scale. Results are discussed with respect to suicide theory and measurement, public health, and clinical practice.

Hate-motivated behavior (HMB) comprises a problem for public health and criminal justice systems. The present study contributes to current science of HMB by examining (1) potential typology replication and extension and (2) demographic and attitudinal correlates of HMB subtypes. The present study was a secondary analysis of an online survey study of discriminatory behavior and well-being. Participants were adults living in the United States ( N = 289). Four HMB subtypes emerged: generalized, unmotivated, reactive, and defensive. The generalized subtype was characterized by elevated levels of prejudices, positive views toward hate groups, and the youngest age. The reactive subtype was differentiated from the defensive subtype by modestly higher HMB, racism, and positive views toward racially motivated hate groups. HMB subtypes were largely consistent with prior literature, and therefore can inform public health and criminal justice system responses to acts ranging from minor discrimination to interpersonal violence. Prevention and practice are discussed.

Stalking is a serious crime involving a course of repeated conduct that frightens, threatens, or harasses the victim. Despite growing scholarly attention, the criminal justice system response to stalking has been understudied. Prior research suggests that stalking, like other interpersonal crimes (i.e., sexual assault, domestic violence) is underreported; however, stalking cases are also inconsistently classified and managed by law enforcement (Brady & Nobles, 2017). This exploratory study used official court data from Houston, Texas to examine trends in stalking cases relative to two major revisions of Texas anti-stalking statutes. Results demonstrate that trends in arrests with intent to prosecute were stable over time and that very few cases of stalking were prosecuted in this jurisdiction during any given year, even as a comparison trend for the broader category of harassment charges showed escalation over time, consistent with population growth and other extra-legal influences. These findings suggest that stalking cases remain rarely prosecuted despite increasing awareness and provisions for enhanced penalties under Texas law. Implications for research and policy are discussed.

Sexual violence victimization is a prevalent public health concern. However, little research has investigated the factors linking sexual violence victimization to suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs). The current study tested the applicability of the psychological mediation framework, a coping-mental health model, for the prevention of STBs among victims of sexual youviolence. Furthermore, the current study explored whether sexual orientation moderated the progression from sexual violence victimization to STBs. Data were drawn from an online survey of victimization experiences and health (N = 2175). Bootstrap mediation tested whether the association of sexual violence victimization and STBs was mediated by emotion regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression) and psychopathology (anxiety, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder). Multiple-groups analysis tested whether links within the mediation effects varied by sexual orientation. Bivariate findings showed that: (1) sexual minority persons were more likely to report sexual violence victimization and (2) cognitive reappraisal was more meaningfully associated with mental health among sexual minority persons. Sexual violence victimization was associated with STBs via a serial mediation through emotion regulation and psychopathology. The association between psychopathology and STBs was stronger among sexual minority compared with heterosexual respondents. Physical violence victimization was associated with STBs for heterosexual but not sexual minority persons in a follow-up model. Findings support an emotion regulation-mental health framework for the prevention of suicide among victims of sexual violence. Research and training implications are discussed.

This study is concerned with two risk factors that have been independently associated with poor behavioral health: (a) lifetime suicide-related behavior (SRB) and (b) interpersonal violence victimization experiences. The purpose of this article was to assess whether the combination of SRB (ideation, attempt) and violent victimization exacerbates behavioral health symptom risk. This pattern is examined across three vulnerable population samples: community-based adults, college students, and bondage and sadomasochism (BDSM) community members. Data from a community health and sexuality survey (n = 2,175) were collected as a health needs assessment in partnership with the National Coalition for Sexual Freedom; latent class analysis (LCA) was then employed to identify intersectionality. This paper builds on prior findings yielding two distinct violence-related classes: (a) SRB only and (b) violent victimization + SRB. Controlling for demographic covariates, analyses revealed a consistent pattern in which the violent victimization + SRB subgroup displayed significantly worse behavioral health outcomes, including symptoms of depression, anxiety, general distress, and posttraumatic stress. Membership in any of the three available samples did not moderate the latent class-behavioral health associations, suggesting the additive impact of lifetime victimization + SRB is equitable across samples. Results are consistent with social-ecological framing of shared suicide-interpersonal violence falling under the same category of public health concerns sharing risk factors and health outcomes.

Hate-motivated behavior (HMB) in criminal and noncriminal forms is a public health dilemma. This study is an advanced measurement of the perpetration of HMB through development of the Hate-Motivated Behavior Checklist (HMBC). Through a cross-sectional online-administered survey of adults (N = 289), we examined: (a) factor structure and internal consistency of HMBC behaviors, (b) descriptive patterns of targeted groups and motivations for HMB, and (c) correlates of HMBC behaviors. Findings support a single-factor HMBC behaviors score with high internal consistency. HMB based on race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and sex were the most commonly endorsed. The most highly endorsed motivations for HMB were perceived intrusion and perceived threat. Antigay prejudice, antilesbian prejudice, positive views of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and Nazis were among significant correlates of HMB perpetration. The HMBC represents a preliminary research measurement tool for the assessment of HMB in need of further psychometric study.

The purpose of this study was to examine the role that control occupies in the motivation for, and development of, intimate partner violence (IPV). The research literature often theorizes about the importance of control in gender-based crimes; however, few studies have empirically tested these assumptions. Given the breath of theoretical approaches in examining IPV and the need for individualized explanations, the current study used concepts from Tittle’s control balance theory. This integrated theory accounts for many of the known risk factors, such as self-control and routine activities, while accounting for individual perceptions of control. A college student sample ( N = 401) was used, in accordance with the literature that has found this subpopulation to be at high risk for IPV. An online survey was distributed to potential participants to capture self-reported incidents of victimization and perpetration of IPV within the past year. Statistical analysis using segmented nonlinear regression models was estimated to assess sex difference effects. The results showed no difference in control continuums between the sexes but did find significant associations between control deficits and female victimization and perpetration, as well as significant association between control deficits and male perpetration of IPV. These findings have implications beyond the theoretical confirmation that control is key factor to this type of violence. In addition to greater education regarding dating expectations, control deficits may be particularly important for socially marginalized groups, such as those from the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community. Efforts can then be made to identify issues with control in IPV counseling, victim services, treatments for offenders, and other gender-based crimes, such as rape, sexual assault, and stalking.

This chapter discusses how geographic information systems (GIS) have become indispensable in the study of policing. It describes the history of recognizing the importance of place and crime, arguing that GIS is a natural progression of that historical body of work, particularly in the study of race/ethnicity, bias, and policing. It also provides a brief tutorial on how to create and use maps with different types of software, and presents examples where both researchers and the police utilized GIS in the study of racial profiling. These examples cover traffic stop studies in St. Louis, Cleveland, and Sacramento. The chapter concludes with a discussion of “open issues” related to GIS that underscore the technique as a “relatively new and promising methodological approach to address old questions related to whether policing practice differs significantly and systematically from expectations based on the social and environmental conditions in a given area.”

There is consistent evidence to suggest that individuals with low resting heart rate are more likely to engage in a variety of antisocial behaviors. The present study examines whether this finding can be extended to stalking perpetration. Drawing from fearlessness theory and stimulation-seeking theory, as well as conceptual work of Meloy and Fisher, we find that individuals with low resting heart rates had significantly greater odds of engaging in stalking behavior, net of controls for sex, age, race, self-control, parental affection, delinquent peers, attitudes/beliefs toward crime, and aggression. When disaggregated by sex, the heart rate–stalking relationship was found to be significant for males, but not for females. The implications of these findings are discussed from a biosocial perspective.

This study examines predictors of immigrants’ confidence in the police at the individual and national levels, based on the instrumental and expressive frameworks. Using the World Value Survey, the study analyzes data from 5,746 immigrants across 34 nations. Generalized multilevel mixed-effects models are utilized to test the effects of individual-level attributes and national-level structural indicators. Immigrants with a citizenship of the resident nation report higher confidence in the police. Neighborhood security, neighborhood trust, and perceived community membership influence immigrants’ confidence in the police. The national-level indicators, including diversity of the nation’s population and discriminatory culture, were significantly related to confidence in the police. In a society with a variety of nationalities and a more discriminatory culture, immigrants report more confidence in the police. Ensuring neighborhood security and improving social capital, such as institutional trust, are important for building confidence in the police.

The spatial-temporal analysis of crime has significantly evolved. One innovative technique recently developed is risk terrain modeling (RTM). RTM, however, has yet to be used for environmental crime. This research applies RTM and draws from crime pattern theory to examine illegal activities in two protected areas in Cambodia. Findings suggest that pathways, edges, areas with suitable targets, conservation posts, landcover, and prior incidents are related to fauna- and flora-related illegal activities, though this relationship varies by season, units of analysis, and study area (i.e., patrol-based compared with official designation). Implications for theory and policy are outlined.

The current body of literature on the topic of environmental crime is bigger and better than ever, but the question of whether criminology/criminal justice scholars make a difference in this area is another matter entirely. This paper offers an interpretive view on the strengths and shortcomings in the sub-field of environmental crime, including discussion of the green criminology movement as well as various studies addressing criminal justice system responses to this complex phenomenon. Although this domain has grown steadily since the 1990s, our discipline must change its approach fundamentally in order to maximize the potential for impact. To this end, four major recommendations are directed to the field, along with two overarching messages: (a) environmental crime must move away from the fringes into the criminological mainstream, and (b) participation in this process is open to all motivated criminologists.

This chapter presents an overview of the criminology/criminal justice literature on environmental crime, alternatively referred to as crimes against the environment or “green” criminology. Generally acknowledged to date back to the early 1990s, the literature on environmental and green criminology topics continues to garner attention from scholars around the world on an accelerating basis. In fact, despite some key limitations, this body of scholarship has contributed many interesting perspectives on theory, empirical patterns, and implications for policy involving legal interpretations, crime correlates, and justice system response. What the environmental/green criminology movement has not done, broadly speaking, is to enter the criminology/criminal justice mainstream to become a subject of common study for the discipline. This chapter identifies the philosophical and theoretical genesis of the green criminology movement (contextualizing its critical underpinnings) and noting some counter-perspectives on its evolution, before reviewing the literature concerning the correlates and consequences of environmental crime. Additional discussion is devoted to the conceptualization of environmental crime as a sub-form of corporate/white collar crime, and to the various legal and procedural elements commonly studied by social scientists. The chapter concludes with observations and recommendations for the future of criminology/criminal justice study of environmental crime.