Green energy commodities are expected to be central in decarbonising the global energy system. Such green energy commodities could be hydrogen or other hydrogen-based energy commodities produced from renewable energy sources (RES) such as solar or wind energy. We quantify the production cost and potentials of hydrogen and hydrogen-based energy commodities ammonia, methane, methanol, gasoline, diesel and kerosene in 113 countries. Moreover, we evaluate total supply costs to Germany, considering both pipeline-based and maritime transport. We determine production costs by optimising the investment and operation of commodity production from dedicated RES based on country-level RES potentials and country-specific weighted average costs of capital. Analysing the geographic distribution of production and supply costs, we find that production costs dominate the supply cost composition for liquid or easily liquefiable commodities, while transport costs dominate for gaseous commodities. In the case of Germany, importing green ammonia could be more cost-efficient than domestic production from locally produced or imported hydrogen. Green ammonia could be supplied to Germany from many regions worldwide at below the cost of domestic production, with costs ranging from 624 to 874 $/t NH3 and Norway being the cheapest supplier. Ammonia production using imported hydrogen from Spain could be cost-effective if a pan-European hydrogen pipeline grid based on repurposed natural gas pipelines exists.

Zusammenfassung Der Ausbruch der Coronapandemie 2020 hat die Abhängigkeit der deutschen Wirtschaft von globalen Lieferketten offengelegt. Verzögerungen bei der Zulieferung oder der Ausfall von Vorprodukten infolge eingeschränkter Logistikkapazitäten, geschlossener Grenzen oder einer gestörten Produktion bei Zulieferern hat seitdem bei vielen Betrieben in Deutschland zu Problemen geführt. Mit dem Angriff Russlands auf die Ukraine im Februar 2022 wurde deutlich, dass Lieferketten auch erheblichen geopolitischen Risiken ausgesetzt sind. Die Unternehmen stehen vor der Aufgabe, ihre Zulieferketten resilienter gegen solche Risiken zu machen.

Abstract Based on data from a representative German establishment survey, we assess the ramifications of potentially cutting off the gas supply from Russia. Moreover, we analyse how rising energy costs and supply chain disruptions are so far related to the probability of firms adjusting prices, output and employment. A large share of businesses, especially energy-intensive ones, expect a partial or full reduction in output levels should they no longer be supplied with gas. Fourteen percent of businesses report that their production already decreased due to the Russia-Ukraine war and even more expect such a decrease in the future. Similarly, many businesses report price increases. Output and price adjustments are more likely to occur among businesses reporting rising energy costs or supply chain bottlenecks. Some have taken personnel measures, but overall, employment has remained robust so far.

Die Erreichung der Klimaneutralität in Deutschland bedingt den Ausstieg aus der Verwendung von fossilem Methan wie zum Beispiel Erdgas. Der Bedarf an gasförmigen Energieträgern kann anstatt durch Erdgas durch grünen Wasserstoff gedeckt werden. Durch einen Brennstoffwechsel von Methan auf Wasserstoff steht der deutschen Gaswirtschaft ein Strukturwandel bevor, für dessen Planung die zukünftige Entwicklung der Methan- und Wasserstoffnachfrage von Bedeutung ist. Im Zuge dieser Metaanalyse werden Szenarien aus Energiesystemstudien der letzten Jahre ausgewertet und daraus Trends für die Entwicklung der Methan- und Wasserstoffnachfragen ermittelt sowie Implikationen für den Strukturwandel abgeleitet. Bis zum Jahr 2045 könnte sich die Gesamtnachfrage nach gasförmigen Energieträgern halbieren, wobei Methan fast vollständig durch Wasserstoff ersetzt wird. Sektoral wird Wasserstoff vor allem im Industriesektor eingesetzt. Darüber hinaus entwickelt sich im Verkehrssektor eine signifikante Wasserstoffnachfrage. In den Sektoren Energie- und Gebäudesektor geht die Nachfrage nach gasförmigen Energieträgern deutlich zurück. Die aktuelle Studienlage sieht den Aufbau einer Wasserstoffwirtschaft als Voraussetzung zur Erreichung der Klimaneutralität. Für den Aufbau eines Wasserstoffnetzes bietet es sich an, Rohrleitungen des bestehenden Fernleitungsnetzes zu verwenden. Dadurch könnte es zu einer Konkurrenz zwischen Methan und Wasserstoff über die Nutzung des Fernleitungsnetzes kommen. Durch den sinkenden Gesamtbedarf ist zu erwarten, dass langfristig weniger Netzinfrastruktur notwendig sein wird als heute vorhanden ist.

Zusammenfassung Seit 2021 steigen die Energiepreise kräftig an. Mit Beginn des russischen Kriegs gegen die Ukraine sind sie noch einmal in die Höhe geschnellt. Neben Lieferkettenstörungen und Exportrückgängen dämpft das die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung, Konjunkturprognosen wurden deutlich nach unten revidiert. Darüber hinaus stellt ein mögliches komplettes Ausbleiben aller Lieferungen von Energieträgern aus Russland ein erhebliches Risiko dar. Über die zu erwartenden Folgen ist viel diskutiert worden. Wenn es um die Auswirkungen eines Lieferstopps von Gas geht, kommen bisherige Berechnungen auf Basis ökonomischer Modelle zu uneindeutigen Ergebnissen mit einer Spannbreite von einem verkraftbaren Schock (Bachmann et al., 2022) bis hin zu massiven und dauerhaften wirtschaftlichen Schäden (Krebs, 2022).

This data report describes the data from an establishment survey conducted as part of the Establishments in the Covid-19 Crisis project. A representative sample of 1,500 to 2,000 establishments of different sizes and from various economic sectors was surveyed at regular intervals. By utilizing a high-frequency, rotating panel design, the survey provides a database that closely tracks the consequences of the pandemic. So far, fourteen waves (period: 08/03/2020 - 06/18/2021) are available to external researchers. (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

This data report describes the data from an establishment survey conducted as part of the Establishments in the Covid-19 Crisis project. A representative sample of 1,500 to 2,000 establishments of different sizes and from various economic sectors was surveyed at regular intervals. By utilizing a high-frequency, rotating panel design, the survey provides a database that closely tracks the consequences of the pandemic. So far, fourteen waves (period: 08/03/2020 - 06/18/2021) are available to external researchers. (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en))

This paper focuses on the role of classifying types of foreign direct investment (FDI) for analyzing the relevance of productivity for the size of cross-border investments in terms of the foreign subsidiary's workforce. We use a newly established firm-level data set of German multinational firms and their Czech affiliates that allows various categorizations into vertical FDI and horizontal FDI. Apart from data for conventional approaches to classify FDI types, the survey data include a self-assessment of the firms with respect to investment motives, and information on intra-firm trade. In order to correct for sample selection, we apply a two-step Heckman procedure by comparing multinational firms to companies without investment abroad. The results for the direct measures of FDI types confirm theoretical expectations and previous empirical literature and stand in marked contrast to the outcome for indirect measurement concepts. We conclude that one should be more cautious in interpreting differences between vertical and horizontal FDI when using approximative classification concepts.

This paper focuses on the role of classifying types of foreign direct investment (FDI) for analysing the determinants of cross-border investment relationships. We base our investigation on a newly established firm-level data set of German multinational firms and their affiliates in the Czech Republic that allows various categorisations into vertical foreign direct investment (VFDI) and horizontal foreign direct investment (HFDI). Apart from data for conventional approaches to classifying FDI types, the surveyed information contained herein also includes a detailed self-assessment of the firms with respect to investment motives, and specifications on intra-firm trade and the flow of intermediate inputs. In order to correct for sample selection, we apply a two-step Heckman procedure by comparing multinational firms that have an affiliate in the Czech Republic to companies without investment abroad. The results for the direct measures of FDI types confirm theoretical expectations and previous empirical literature and stand in marked contrast to the outcome for indirect measurement concepts. Our finding leads us to the conclusion that one should be more cautious in interpreting differences between vertical and horizontal FDI when using approximative classification concepts.

This article investigates the employment development in Czech-based firms in German ownership in the years around the Great Recession of 2008/2009. The intense involvement of German firms in the economy of the neighbouring country via foreign direct investment (FDI) raises a question whether under the conditions of a historically deep global downturn, the Czech employees in multinational companies were confronted with an increased volatility of their jobs. Using a unique firm-level dataset, we contrast the affiliates of German investors with purely Czech-owned enterprises. Our findings indicate that in the years before the crisis, firms with German capital exhibited a noticeably more positive employment development. The results from the year 2008 onwards give reason to the conclusion that the German-owned firms played a stabilizing role for the Czech labour market during the recession.

Much has been written on the distinction between vertical and horizontal foreign direct investment. However, most of the empirical literature relies on indirect and aggregated measures only. The aim of this paper is to help fill this gap by examining the differences between German affiliates in the Czech Republic and their mother companies in Germany on the basis of direct evidence on factor requirements. Using a cluster analysis on firm-level data from the unique ReLOC survey, we identify. four main groups of firms that partition the sample by broad sectoral lines and by technological, educational and skill intensity of their operations within each of them. More detailed analysis of the clustering reveals that the vertical model dominates in manufacturing, while the horizontal model of investment prevails in the service sector.

Summary The last decade has been shaped by dramatic developments in international trade, international investment and production, both in terms of the scale of events and in terms of their qualitative nature. Intriguing questions have been thrown up concerning the labor market impact of these developments, notably welfare issues (the evolution of real wages, employment and unemployment), the distribution of income (the wage structure) and employment volatility. Path-breaking innovations in the theories of trade, location and the multinational firm allow a fresh look at these labor market effects. This paper takes stock of these theoretical innovations and contrasts these with the recent empirical research efforts to uncover the labor market implications of trade and FDI. We identify research gaps and highlight promising avenues for future research.

This article deals with the domestic location of German multinational firms which have affiliates in the Czech Republic. Due to the common border the Czech Republic represents an attractive target country for both vertical and horizontal direct investments. In the year 2009 the sum of direct and indirect German investments in the Czech Republic added up to 22 bn EURO. This amount is far higher than the investments in other Central and Eastern European Countries (CEEC) and also in Japan or in one of the BRIC countries Brazil, Russia, India and China. On the one hand, the still existing wage gap offers the opportunity to offshore activities abroad by reason of cost advantages. On the other hand, the increasing purchasing power of Czech customers provides favorable chances to acquire a new market. Corresponding to the main motive for a company to invest in the Czech Republic, there are differences in the relevance of possible determinants for the decision to go abroad, e.g. the distance between the German capital provider and the Czech affiliate. On the basis of a register of firms made available by the German-Czech Chamber of Industry and Commerce we present findings on the growing economic integration between the two countries. Almost 80% of the headquarters of German investors are located in the four federal states Bavaria, Baden-Wuerttemberg, Hesse and North Rhine-Westphalia. The eastern German New Laender are far less engaged in investments in the neighboring country. We use count data models in order to account for the distribution of the dependent variable, i.e. the number of investors in the German domestic regions. Controlling for several economic factors it can be concluded that the headquarters of German multinationals investing in the Czech Republic are preferably located in areas with high regional GDP. The distance to the common border plays an important role for the decision to enter the Czech market. In addition, regions that are situated directly at the German-Czech border are involved at an above-average rate in foreign direct investments. Thereby, location patterns differ between manufacturing firms and both trading and service companies. The findings illustrate the relevance and different impact of regional aspects for foreign direct investments dependent on the target sector in the country of destination.

Using data from the Czech Microcensus, I investigate differences in the regional impact of open borders on different skill groups in the Czech labour market. According to my results, there are no indications of disproportionate shifts in the skill structure of employment in the districts neighbouring western Germany and Austria compared to non-border districts. However, regarding spatial wage gaps, I find evidence that from 1996 until 2002 the workers in the border region with the lowest degree of skills have a positive wage differential compared to their counterparts in the non-border region, while all other skill groups in the border region have negative values.

In the process of European integration, regions close to a border are especially affected by labour market liberalisation. Using data from the IAB employment subsample (IABS) and the employment register (BeH) for the period before and after the opening of the border between Germany and the Czech Republic (1980-2001) I shed light on the development of wages. Both German employees and Czech commuters in the western German borderland of Bavaria are compared to other domestic and foreign workers. At the beginning of the 1990s, German legislation was relatively unrestrictive, so that it was quite easy for Czech workers to obtain a work permit beyond the border. Most of them had only low education. More than 5% of the eastern Bavarian male, low-skilled workforce was reported Czech in the early 1990s. Surprisingly, precisely in this period German employees seem to have benefited from integration, but suffered in the years afterwards, when regulations on labour permits for commuters were far stricter.

In the process of European integration labour markets are assumed to be affected disproportionately in regions bordering on new EU member countries. According to the Feenstra-Hanson model low-skilled workers in the border regions are predicted to suffer notably from increasing trade and the relocation of production activities to low-wage countries, while high-skilled workers should benefit from the increasing market potential. Using data from the IAB employment subsample (IABS) and the employment register (BeH) the wage differentials between workers in eastern Bavaria and western German districts are estimated. These estimations show, while in the early years after the fall of the Iron Curtain a catching-up process set in for the bulk of employees in eastern Bavaria, the trend reverses after 1995 and the wage gap deepens again.