Soyfood products like tofu are becoming popular among American consumers due to health benefits. In order to increase production to meet consumer demands, it is imperative that factors that effect quantity and quality of tofu be characterized. The present study was conducted to determine the effects of soybean genotypes and growing locations on contents of oil and fatty acids in tofu which was prepared from twelve soybean genotypes (BARC-8, BARC-9, Enrei, Hutcheson, MD86-5788, Nakasennari, S90-1056, Suzuyutaka, V71-370, V81-1603, Ware, and York) grown at three southern U.S. locations (Huntsville, Alabama; Princess Anne, Maryland; and Petersburg, Virginia) during 1995. The results showed that tofu quality was determined by the soybean genotype. The tofu made from seeds of high seed-protein and low seed-oil genotypes (BARC-8 and BARC-9) resulted in tofu with low contents of oil (15.8 and 11.3 g/100g, respectively) and total saturated fatty acids (2.59 and 160 g/100g, respectively). Tofu made from seeds of conventional grain type genotypes, such as Hutcheson, resulted in higher oil (24.0 g/100g) and total saturated fatty acids (3.80 g/100g) contents in tofu. Effects of growing environment on contents of oil were not significant but tofu made from seeds grown in Alabama had significantly higher content of total saturated fatty acids (3.50 g/100g) as compared to that made from seeds grown in Maryland (2.88 g/100g) or Virginia (2.96 g/100g). Tofu made from seeds of large and medium-seeded genotypes had higher contents of total monounsaturated fatty acids in tofu as compared to that made from small-seeded genotypes. Highly positive correlation existed between contents of oil, 18:1, 18:2, total saturated, and total unsaturated fatty acids in the seeds and their contents in the tofu (+0.80, +0.75, +0.79, +0.62, +0.68, respectively). These results indicated that tofu quality is governed by soybean genotype, seed size and growing location.

Lack of adequate processing facilities has been a major hindrance in the adoption of canola ( Brassica napus L. and Brassica rapa L.) as an alternative oilseed crop in the southern United States. Therefore, development of alternative uses could be instrumental in facilitating adoption of canola by American farmers. We evaluated chemical composition of greens from four canola cultivars (`Dixie', `Falcon', `HN120-91', and `Jetton') grown during 1995-96 and 1996-97 at Petersburg, Va., to determine their potential as a food and feed source. The results indicated potential yield of ≈11 t·ha -1 of fresh greens and ≈1 t·ha -1 of dry matter. The canola greens contained 3.4% oil and 30.6% protein on a dry weight basis. Canola greens contained 0.52%, 4.14%, 0.35%, 1.59%, and 0.20% (dry weight basis) of phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and sodium, respectively. Canola greens also contained 0.94, 2.02, 5.47, 14.65, 28.61, 0.74, and 31.92 (mg/100 g dry weight basis) of sulfur, boron, zinc, manganese, iron, copper, and aluminum, respectively. The oil in canola greens contained 18.79%, 81.14%, 15.36%, and 65.78% saturated, unsaturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids, respectively. Based on these values, canola greens compared favorably with mustard and turnip greens.

Soybean [ Glycine max (L.) Merr.], an important component of the Asian diet, is gaining popularity as a source of vegetable protein and phytochemicals in the USA. However, soybean cultivars with desirable agronomic traits and biochemical components that enhance the quality of soyfoods have not been identified for cultivation in the USA. Twelve soybean genotypes, including three from Japan, were evaluated for their agronomic performance, genotype × environment (GE) interactions, and yield stability at four locations in the USA from 1994 to 1997. At maturity, seed yield, biomass, harvest index (HI), and 100-seed dry weight were determined using plants harvested from the middle two rows of each plot. Genotypic differences for the traits examined were significant. The mean seed yield across locations and years ranged from 2.0 to 3.0 Mg ha −1 . The Japanese cultivars had larger seeds but were outyielded by the American genotypes by ≈10% and up to 35% by ‘Hutcheson’. The genotype effects were significantly larger than the location × year effects for plant height, seed weight, and HI, but not for biomass or seed yield. Biomass and HI were important determinants of seed yield. S90–1056, V81–1603, V71–370, ‘Enrei’, ‘Nakasennari’, ‘Ware’, and ‘York’ were stable for seed weight across years. Hutcheson, S90–1056, York, MD86–5788, Nakasennari, and BARC-8 showed yield stability across environments and years. S90–1056, York, and Nakasennari were stable for both seed weight and seed yield; therefore, they could be used for commercial production in the USA or for breeding soybean cultivars suitable for tofu preparation.

Although there is increasing interest in reducing the use of nitrogen (N) fertilizers due to the potential of unused N causing pollution of surface and groundwater, N is a major nutrient for plant growth. Our objective was to determine the potential of using winter legume cover crops to meet the N needs of seedless watermelon ( Citrullus lanatus ), a potential cash crop for farmers in Virginia. Fruit number, fruit weight, fruit yield, and fruit quality traits (flesh to rind ratio, water content, total soluble solids, sugar content, and pH) of seedless watermelons were evaluated in replicated experiments in Virginia at three locations during 1997-98 and two locations during 1998-99 following cover crop treatments consisting of crimson clover ( Trifolium incarnatum ), hairy vetch ( Vicia villosa ), crimson clover + rye ( Secale cereale ), hairy vetch + rye, and a bareground control treatment that received 100 lb/acre (112 kg·ha -1 ) of N. At all five locations, the bareground control treatment resulted in fewer fruit [1803 fruit/acre (4454 fruit/ha)], lower fruit weight [9.8 lb (4.5 kg)], and lower fruit yield [8.9 tons/acre (20.0 t·ha -1 )] compared to the four cover crop treatments. The crimson clover + rye and hairy vetch treatments resulted in highest numberof fruit [2866 and 2657 fruit/acre (7079 and 6563 fruit/ha), respectively], whereas the highest fruit yield was obtained following hairy vetch [21.2 tons/acre (49.8 t·ha -1 )], hairy vetch + rye [20.3 tons/acre (45.5 t·ha -1 )], and crimson clover + rye [19.6 tons/acre (43.9 t·ha -1 )]. Cover crop treatments did not affect the quality of watermelon flesh. The seedless watermelon fruit averaged 1.4 flesh: 1 rind ratio, 90% water content, 9.5% total soluble solids, 8.0% sugar, and a pH value of 5.9. These results indicated that legume cover crops, such as crimson clover and hairy vetch, can be successfully used to produce seedless watermelons, in a no-till system, without any use of N fertilizers with dryland conditions.

Our objective was to evaluate production potential of eight tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius A. Gray) genotypes and three planting dates. Significant variation (P < 0.05) existed among eight genotypes and three planting dates in 1997 and 1998. The genotype ×planting date interaction was nonsignificant (P > 0.05) for seed yield and harvest index. Seed yields of eight genotypes, when averaged over three planting dates and 2 years, varied from 1618 to 1988 with a mean of 1816 kg·ha-1, indicating that tepary bean is adapted to Virginia's agro-climatic conditions. The harvest index (ratio between seed and total plant weight, expressed as percentage) ranged from 38% to 47%. Seed weight varied from 12.6 to 18.8 g with a mean of 14.5 g. Genotypes with tan-colored seeds had significantly larger seed than those with black or white seeds. Planting dates significantly affected seed yield, seed weight, and harvest index. The highest seed yield (2239 kg·ha-1) and harvest index were obtained from the late May plantings.

Cover crops offer an excellent source of nutritional requirements for production of vegetables in sustainable agricultural system. By using this concept, field experiments were conducted in l998 at three locations in Virginia; Petersburg, James City, and King and William County, and five cover crop treatments; Hairy Vetch (HV), Crimson Clover (CC), HV+Rye, CC+Rye, and a conventional bare-ground control were used for their potential support of nutritional requirements for production of a seedless watermelon crop. The results indicated that the yield levels of seedless watermelon following cover crop treatments had significantly higher number of fruits per acre and the crimson clover treatment had higher fruit size in one of the sites (King William County) as compared to the other four treatments and two sites suggesting that cover crop/crops alone have the potential to support nutritional requirements for seedless watermelon to sustain production, thus becoming a viable and profitable alternative to using inorganic nitrogen source. The effects of cover crops on chemical composition of seedless watermelon were generally not significant. The results also indicated that watermelons produced using sustainable crop production methods are comparable to those produced using conventional methods. Our studies support using seedless watermelon as a viable alternative and high-value cash crop for Virginia farmers' especially tobacco growers, other small-scale producers, and limited resource farmers.

Epoxidized oils, manufactured by chemical epoxidation of fats and vegetable oils such as soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], are useful in reformulation of oil based (alkyd-resin) paints to reduce emissions of volatile organic compounds that contribute to production of smog. Other potential markets for epoxy fatty acids include plasticizers, additives to polyvinyl chloride, polymer blends and coatings, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical applications. Currently, no oilseed crop has been commercialized as a source of natural epoxidized oils. However, Vernonia galamensis (Cass.) Less. has been identified to have potential for domestication as a new industrial oilseed source of natural epoxy fatty acids. The main objective of this research was to evaluate feasibility of vernonia production in mid-Atlantic region of the United States. Specifically, we wanted to evaluate available vernonia germplasm for seed yield, oil content, and oil quality, and to determine suitable production practices. The seed yield (kg/ha) in field experiments conducted from 1994, 1995, and 1996 at Randolph Farm of Virginia State University (37°15′N and 77°30.8′W), with a selected group of vernonia lines, ranged from 490 to 1288, 494 to 1394, and 1070 to 1934, respectively. Oil content ranged from 30.2 to 36.7% and 32.1 to 39.2%, respectively for 1995 and 1996 and the vernolic acid content ranged from 68.9 to 74.7% and 69.1 to 75.6%. A significant positive correlation (r=0.34) between oil content and vernolic acid content indicated that both these characteristics could be improved simultaneously. The highest seed yield was obtained with 100 kg N/ha. A pre-plant-incorporated application of Trifluralin herbicide at 0.5 kg/ha a.i. did not reduce vernonia stand establishment. Seedhead shattering was observed to be a limitation in the evaluated vernonia germplasm. These results indicate that commercial vernonia production in Virginia and other areas in the mid-Atlantic region of United States may be feasible.

Soyfoods are becoming popular among American consumers because of potential health benefits. However, specific information about the kind of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Men.] seed desirable for soyfoods preparation is limited. The objectives of this study were to compare soymilk and tofu prepared from 12 soybean genotypes grown at four locations in the southern USA during 1995 to identify genotypes suitable for soymilk and tofu manufacture and to determine effects of seed traits on yield and quality of soymilk and tofu. Location effects were significant only for soymilk solids and tofu strength. Soymilk yield with a mean value of 5.1 mL g−1 seed was not affected by soybean genotype. Significant genotypic effects were observed on tofu yield, which varied from 0.82 to 0.91 g mL−1 of soymilk. Tofu yield was significantly correlated to seed size (+0.31), seed oil (+0.74), rate of water absorption after 1 and 16 h of soaking (+0.38 and +0.56, respectively), and seed protein (−0.82). Seed protein content, seed size, and soymilk solids were significant determinants of tofu yield (R2 = 0.80). Two variables, soymilk index (SI) and tofu index (TI), were calculated to compare overall suitability of soybean genotypes for soymilk and tofu production. SI was calculated by summing yield, total solids, protein content, and whiteness index of soymilk. TI was calculated by summing yield, protein, whiteness index, and strength of tofu. Seed oil content and size were significant determinants of SI (R2 = 0.41), whereas soymilk color, seed size, and seed protein content were significant determinants of TI (R2 = 0.52). The SI and TI values indicated BARC‐9 to be a desirable genotypes for soymilk and for tofu preparation.

The New Crops Program of Virginia State University, established in 1991, has evaluated the production feasibility of a wide array of leguminous crops including chickpea, faba bean, mungbean, and pigeonpea under Virginia’s agro-climatic conditions (Bhardwaj et al. 1996). Such crops could provide alternatives to farmers in Virginia and adjoining Mid-Atlantic States. These farmers, in general, rely on a limited number of crops and are interested in diversification. The close proximity of these farmers to the Washington, DC metropolitan area where the international community is familiar with these crops can provide a market for these crops. The evaluations of chickpea, pigeonpea, and mungbean were conducted as replicated field experiments. The evaluations of faba bean and lupin germplasm were conducted by planting single row plots of each accession. All field experiments were conducted at the Randolph Farm of Virginia State University which is located approximately 37° 15' N and 077° 30.8' W. CHICKPEA Cicer arietinum L., an ancient crop, was probably grown in Turkey 7400 years ago. Most chickpea world production is in India. The mature chickpea seed are used as a dry bean and green immature seed are used as a vegetable. In chickpea, two seed types exist: kabuli or garbanzo (large seeded) and desi (small seeded). Chickpea is an annual plant generally requiring a cool season. However, it can be planted in spring in Virginia. The chickpea plant is 20‐100 cm tall. Chickpea has a deep tap root and is considered drought tolerant. The results of chickpea evaluations are presented in Table 1. The mean yield of desi type chickpea lines (1153 kg/ha) was significantly higher than that of kabuli type lines (719 kg/ha). However, the larger kabulitype chickpea are known to be sold at premier prices at the green-immature stage for use as a vegetable. Recent research has indicated that ‘Sanford’ and ‘Dwelly’ ( kabuli type cultivars) and ‘Myles’ ( desi type cultivar) are adaptable and high yielding in Virginia. FABA BEAN Vicia faba L. is known to be an efficient nitrogen fixer and there is interest among farmers to grow faba bean as a vegetable crop to market the green beans in the Washington, DC metropolitan area. The faba bean is generally a cool season crop but can be planted in Virginia during spring. A diverse germplasm collection of faba bean germplasm has been evaluated for production potential. This collection has included lines from ICARDA (Syria); US collection at Pullman, Washington; and lines from Dr. Al Slinkard (University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada). The seedling and foliar diseases have been a major hindrance in faba bean production under Virginia conditions. Although our results with faba bean have been disappointing, two cultivars, ‘Fatima’ and ‘Chinese’, seem to have promise under Virginia conditions.

Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) is an important culinary herb in Virginia and other areas. The objective of this study, conducted during 1997, was to determine optimal N rate for fresh and dry matter yield. Seed of Broad Leaf sweet basil were direct-seeded on 18 June in rows 0.75 m apart in a RCBD design with 8 replications. Four N rates (0, 25, 50, and 75 kg N/ha) were used. Calcium nitrate (15.5% N) was used as the fertilizer source. All plants from 1-m row length from middle row of each plot were harvested by hand on 23 Sept. and fresh weights were recorded. The plant material was dried at 70°C for 48 h to record dry weights. The moisture content at harvest was calculated from fresh and dry weights. The fresh yields following 0, 25, 50, and 75 kg N/ha were 3.7, 5.4, 6.4, and 6.8 kg/m2, respectively. The yield difference between two highest N rates was not significant, however, both these rates had significantly higher yield than the two lowest rates. Similar results were also obtained for dry matter yields. The highest N rate of 75 kg N/ha resulted in significantly higher dry matter yield (1.3 kg/m2) as compared to the other three rates. The lowest dry matter yield was obtained after the control treatment (0.6 kg/m2). An opposite relationship between N rate and moisture content was observed when the highest moisture content resulted from control and 50 kg N/ha treatments. These results indicate that optimum N rate for sweet basil in Virginia is 50 to 75 kg/ha.

ABSTRACT The optimum nitrogen fertilizer rates for the production of cilantro (Coriandrum sativum L. cv. Asian, C1410, and C18135) were investigated. Nitrogen applications in excess of 100 kg N/ha did not result in increased yields. The cultivar C1410 produced the highest foliar yield and Asian cultivar had the highest concentration of essential oils as compared with the other cultivars. Age of plants at harvest had a significant effect on yield with highest yield at 52 days after planting for a summer planting (June-September) and at 73 days after planting for a fall planting (August-November). The results indicated that cilantro can be produced in Virginia from April to August.

Petri dish bioassays were used to evaluate terminal foliage from 47 field-grown genotypes of vegetable-type soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merrill, from maturity groups III through VIII, for resistance to corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), in 1993 and 1994. Larvae reared on “Sato”, IAC 100, V89-1301, V89-1563, and V88-100 had low mean weights, not significantly different from resistant controls. However, larval weights ranged from moderate to high on most vegetable-type soybeans. The most susceptible genotypes were “Geulph”, PI 561291, and “Rokusun”, followed by “Kanrich”, “Kura”, “Camp”, “Wolverine”, G2246, G4032, “Kim”, “Hahto”, PI 561294, N2962, and D71-V89. Mortality averaged 2.9% in 1993 and 13.5% in 1994, but was not generally useful in evaluating resistance within maturity groups. High percent mortality and low weights of larvae reared on both resistant and susceptible genotypes in maturity group VII/VIII in 1994 may have been related to the use of insect-damaged foliage. Soluble leaf sugar was determined in 1994 samples and ranged from 0.50% (PI 416868-B) to 1.04% (PI 561291) of dry weight. A small but significant positive correlation (r = 0.20, P = 0.009) was found between sugar content and larval weight in maturity groups III through VI. Exceptional low larval weights in maturity groups VII and VIII were not related to leaf sugar content.

A collection of 35 mint ( Mentha spp.) lines was evaluated during 1996 for fresh and dry yield, percentage of leaves, leaf moisture, and stem moisture to study suitability for fresh markets. These lines were categorized based on geographic origin (domestic vs. foreign), ploidy level (diploid vs. polyploid), mint type (peppermint vs. spearmint), and genetic makeup (pure lines vs. hybrids), and statistical comparisons were made between these categories. Fresh yield and proportion of fresh leaves in the total harvest were affected by type and genetic makeup of mint accessions. Spearmint had significantly greater yield than peppermint (4.1 vs. 2.5 kg/m 2 ) and higher proportion of leaves (69% vs. 63%). Species had higher fresh yield than hybrids (4.1 vs. 2.7 kg/m 2 ) and higher proportion of leaves (69% vs 65%). Domestic accessions, peppermint, and hybrids had significantly higher leaf moisture than foreign accessions, spearmint, and species (26% vs. 22%, 28% vs. 23%, and 27% vs. 24%, respectively). None of the categories affected moisture content in the total plant harvest or stems. Further details of these data will be presented and discussed.

Ozone sensitivity, nutritional quality, seed characteristics, and growth habit of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) were evaluated in two seperate experiments. In the first experiment the data showed a significant variation among 34 bean accessions for ozone sensitivity following acute exposure of 18-day-old plants to 0.6 µl/l O3 for 2 hours under environmentally controlled greenhouse conditions. PI-163579, PI-169735, PI-171790, PI-176684, PI-201374, PI-310711, PI-345576, PI-370569, PI-379435, and PI-414831 were identified as tolerant to acute ozone exposures. Protein, oil, starch, sugar, and ash contents in the seed of selected germplasm were determined and no correlation was found between these components and ozone sensitivity. Seed size and growth habit varied considerably among the 34 accessions but were not correlated to ozone sensitivity. In a second experiment, ten accessions, selected from the tolerant ones identified in the first experiment, were subjected to chronic ozone exposure in open-top chambers at 0.04 and 0.08 µl/l concentrations for 7 hours/day 44 days after transplanting. Based on foliar injury and yield reductions, only PI-370569 and PI-414831 were tolerant to prolonged ozone exposure (0.08 µl/l). A significant positive correlation (r=0.83) existed between foliar injury rating from chronic treatments involving 0.04 and 0.08 µl O3/l and acute exposure (0.6 µl O3/1/2 hours). The data indicated that acute ozone exposure can be used to initially screen a large number of bean accessions, however, this is an imperfect indicator of ozone sensitivity with chronic exposure.

One hundred vegetable-type soybean, Glycine max [L.] Merrill, accessions from maturity groups III through VIII plus 70 grain-type cultivars and plant introductions (PIs) resistant and susceptible to Mexican bean beetle, Epilachna varivestis Mulsant, were evaluated in a randomized block design with three replications for resistance to Mexican bean beetle foliar feeding in a 3-yr field study. Vegetable-type soybean cultivars ranged from moderate susceptibility ('Camp'), similar to many grain-type cultivars, to highly susceptible ('Sato', 'Hahto'). PIs with desirable vegetable-type traits and good to average resistance to Mexican bean beetle (PIs 417061, 417288, and 417310 and FC 31732) were identified, as was highly susceptible germplasm (PI 416771).

Six experimental pigeonpea ( Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) lines were evaluated during 1992 for their agronomic performance at Petersburg, Virginia under the New Crop Development Program of Virginia State University. The germination and stand establishment of indeterminate lines was poor due to low seed quality. The final seed yield varied from 349 to 2042 kg/ha with determinate types yielding significantly higher than indeterminate types. The experimental line GA#2 produced the highest yield. The protein content in mature seeds, harvested 175 days after planting (DAP), varied from 17.0 to 18.5 percent whereas the oil content varied from 1.7 to 2.3 percent. The seed yield was positively correlated with harvest index, seeds/pod, and seed weight. At 130 DAP, the 3 determinate lines yielded more than 10 metric tons of green beans per hectare (70 percent moisture). The protein and oil content of immature seeds from these pods varied from 18.1 to 21.2 and 2.1 to 2.2 percent, respectively. Pigeonpea, depending upon the variety, can also be used as an ornamental or vegetable plant in home gardens. The results of these experiments were quite encouraging.

A USDA/OICD sponsored agricultural research team visited the Republic of China (Taiwan) and the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1990 to gather information regarding soybean utilization and to increase genetic diversity of the soybean crop through new germplasm collections. A total of 25 new soybean accessions were collected and brought to the Virginia State University, Petersburg, VA, one of the OICD sponsored team participants. In accordance with the U.S. policy on the New Germplasm Collection, part of the seed of each accession was sent in original packs to USDA Soybean Germplasm Collections, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. Limited seed increase was done in the greenhouse and one 10m long observational row of each accession was grown at VSU Research Station in 1991. Seed traits, plant agronomic characteristics, insect pest, and disease pathogen reactions were observed and documented. Chemical analysis for nutritional quality, antinutritional factors, and biochemical components of green seeds and pods at R-7 stage and mature seeds of each accession are underway and those values will be compared with existing commercial cultivars, advanced breeding lines, and plant introductions.

Seventeen vegetable soybean genotypes were analyzed for oil, fatty acids, sterols and lipoxygenase activity. The mean oil content was 18.44% and ranging from 15.65% for Wilson-5 to 23.36% for Sango. The lipoxygenase activity ranged from 829.8 units/min/mg meal for PI 417310 to 4750.4 units/min/mg meal for PI 423759, with a mean of 2176.3 units/min/mg meal. Beta-sitosterol (45.95%) was the major plant sterol present, followed by stigmasterol (16.48%), campesterol (16.06%) and dihydroxybrassicasterol (5.62%). Palmitic, oleic and linoleic acids comprised over 90% of the total fatty acids. The means of linoleic (53.34%) and linolenic acids (9.19%) were higher than that reported for the grain-type soybean. The concentrations of oleic were inversely related to the concentrations of linoleic (r = -0.820) and linolenic (r = -0.663) acids.The oils of cultivars sango and sooty, and PIs 423759, 417310, 222397 and 171437 possess superior nutritional quality. In general. the high oil, linoleic, linolenic and sterol content of vegetable-type soybeans make them a food with high nutritional quality.