"Conservationist" and "environmentalist" are two prominent environmental social identities often perceived as conflicting, particularly on wedge issues like hunting. While these groups may hold differing philosophies, their beliefs could overlap, revealing opportunities for collaboration in conservation. We examined environmental identities among U.S. college students across 22 states (n = 17,203) from 2018 to 2020, assessing identity, wildlife values, and positions on polarizing issues. Students were classified into four groups: conservationists (8 %), environmentalists (9 %), pluralists (59 %) who expressed both identities, and eco-agnostics (24 %) who expressed neither. Environmentalists, the most diverse group demographically, exhibited mutualistic wildlife value orientations, while conservationists, the least diverse, expressed domination-centered value orientations. Conservationists broadly supported hunting and gun rights, while environmentalists favored animal rights. Despite these differences, both groups scored equally high on conservation caring, and all groups-including ecoagnostics-broadly approved of hunting for altruistic reasons (e.g., ecological benefits, reducing crop damage). Our findings highlight distinct yet overlapping environmental identities shaped by demographic and value-based factors. These identities, while appearing polarized, share relational values (e.g., conservation caring, altruistic motivations) that present opportunities for collaboration. Although based in the U.S., these findings have global relevance and reflect the impact of broader trends (e.g., urbanization) on shifting wildlife values. Understanding environmental identities offers a framework to align conservation efforts across diverse cultural contexts, promoting a more inclusive and unified approach to global conservation challenges.

Climate change's impacts on the oceans ("ocean change") threaten people globally. Climate action is needed at multiple scales, from individual to collective action, and yet there is limited research on what motivates this action in response to ocean change. In this study, we conducted an online survey of residents of the state of Oregon, United States (n = 1414), to assess concerns, personal importance, and risk perceptions regarding ocean change and explore potential psychological cognitions to target in action-oriented communication efforts. Our latent class analysis identified four distinct audience subgroups ranging from individuals who are Doubtful (9 %) about ocean change to those who are Cautious (20 %), Concerned (33 %), and Alarmed (38 %). Audience subgroups varied in their climate action intentions and associated psychological cognitions (i.e., psychological distance, efficacy beliefs, social norm perceptions). The climate action intentions of the Alarmed and Concerned were positively predicted by all cognitions, those of the Cautious were significantly predicted by social norms (beta = .15, p = .002) and efficacy beliefs (beta = .34, p < .001), and those of the Doubtful were only predicted by efficacy beliefs (beta = .23, p < .001). Across all four audiences, efficacy beliefs were strongly associated with intended climate action (beta = .30, p < .001), suggesting efficacy beliefs may be a practical cognition to target in broad audience communication efforts on ocean change. These findings reinforce the importance of targeting specific psychological cognitions and, ideally, distinct audiences in ocean change communication efforts intending to motivate widespread climate action.

Surveys are a useful tool for understanding natural resource stakeholders such as fishers. Surveys can be used to measure support for an agency’s decisions and policy, motivations to fish and satisfaction in fishing, as well as barriers to participation. Survey design is a skill that requires training and knowledge to craft a questionnaire that is useful, as well as sequential steps taken in the design process. Like any research endeavour, a research problem, goal, objective, or question must be articulated before designing a questionnaire. Decisions around which concepts and questions should be included in the survey to answer the research question must be made, along with deciding the methods used to deploy the survey. Taking time to draft, revise, and pre-test a survey is key to making sure your research goals are addressed. Planning how your survey data will be analysed to answer the research question is critical to make sure you will collect the appropriate data, given the needs of the project. In this chapter, we provide 37 guidelines to help you design a survey and the questions within that survey to meet your needs.

Once a questionnaire has been constructed, the next steps include developing sampling procedures, administering the questionnaire, calculating response rates, and conducting a nonresponse bias check or comparing data to census information about the population (and weighting data if necessary). We compared and contrasted various sampling strategies (e.g., random, systematic, stratified, cluster), and then discussed steps for implementing different survey methods (e.g., on-site, telephone, mail, email, Internet, Internet panels). Each method has advantages and disadvantages. For example, when researchers are interested in fishers’ perceptions of specific experiences and locations, on-site surveys may be the only alternative. Telephone surveys offer rapid data collection, but are costly, often have low response rates, and cannot accommodate complex questions or long questionnaires. Mail surveys allow for longer and more complex questions, but are also costly and take time to complete. Email and Internet surveys are attractive because of the low cost and rapid data collection, but tend to have low response rates and difficulty in obtaining email addresses for general population surveys. Internet panels involve self-selected individuals who are usually paid to complete questionnaires, but these are usually based on nonprobability samples. We also discuss strategies for increasing response rates, performing nonresponse bias checks, and weighting data.

Several studies have measured public attitudes (e.g., favor, disfavor) and behavioral intentions (e.g., intend to vote in support or opposition on ballot initiatives) toward marine reserves (MRs). The concept of authoritarianism can predict attitudes and intentions, but little research has investigated its role in natural resource management such as MRs. This article explored whether right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) and left-wing authoritarianism (LWA) are associated with attitudes and intentions toward MRs in Oregon (USA). Survey data from a random sample of residents (n = 824) showed those with at least some degree of RWA had significantly more negative attitudes and were less supportive of these MRs compared to those with no RWA. Respondents with at least some degree of LWA had more positive attitudes and were more supportive of these reserves compared to those with no LWA. Management and research implications are discussed.

Several studies have measured public attitudes (e.g., favor or disfavor) and behavioral intentions (e.g., intention to vote in support or opposition on a ballot initiative) toward marine reserves (MRs). However, almost all of these studies have been cross-sectional and conducted at single points in time, with few studies examining whether these attitudes and intentions are changing over time. This article examined changes over time in resident attitudes and intentions toward MRs in Oregon (USA). Data from surveys of residents in 2013, 2016, and 2021 from both longitudinal samples (i.e., different people over time; n = 1,950) and a panel sample (i.e., exactly the same people over time; n = 214) showed that across years, residents expressed favorable attitudes toward these MRs. Favorability was highest among those living closest to these reserves and also non-coastal residents of the most heavily populated regions of Oregon. Favorability increased significantly over time in each region for both the longitudinal and panel samples. More than two-thirds of residents across years and regions would also intend to vote in support of these reserves, with those in 2021 significantly more likely than those in earlier years to vote in support. Implications of these findings for both management and research are discussed.

Understanding tolerance for wildlife requires accounting for the multiple cognitive antecedents of this concept and its contextual factors. We examined whether direct experience was associated with four antecedent dimensions of tolerance for black bears (antipathy, connection, lethal control [damage], lethal control [danger to self, pets, and economics]), both directly and indirectly via risk perception, self-assessed knowledge, and factual knowledge. We collected data using intercept surveys at trailheads in western Oregon, United States (n = 210). Risk perception was most strongly related to antipathy (cost-related beliefs) and connection (benefit-related beliefs) toward black bears. Self-assessed knowledge was most strongly associated with an individual's assessment that bears are a nuisance (lethal control [damage] and a safety concern [danger to self, pets, and economics]). Direct experience was related to all four antecedents, whereas factual knowledge was not related to any dimension. Identifying drivers of tolerance can inform actionable recommendations that promote tolerance for wildlife.

Declines in hunter numbers across the United States make hunter recruitment, retention, and reactivation (R3) a high priority for wildlife management. As wildlife management agencies and nongovernmental organizations seek to reach new audiences, college campuses present a unique opportunity to cultivate nontraditional path hunters. Despite recent proliferation of R3 initiatives, little research has evaluated effects of hunting programs on knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of new hunters. We designed and implemented Getting Started Outdoors: Hunting 101 workshops specifically targeting college students without previous hunting experience, and we assessed workshop efficacy with a theoretically-grounded approach to workshop evaluation. Using quantitative and qualitative analysis of surveys conducted before, shortly after, and 12-18 months after workshops, we assessed impacts of R3 efforts at large public universities in 16 different U.S. states. Across all states, 19 workshops attracted 314 total participants, with 255 completing both pre- and post-workshop assessments and 133 completing the follow-up surveys. Workshops significantly increased participants' confidence in hunting, reduced barriers related to inadequate knowledge and skills, and fostered positive views of hunters and hunting. Immediately after workshops, most participants said they would definitely (50%) or probably (34%) hunt in the future; 82% said they would likely (or very likely) purchase a hunting license. Over one year after the workshops, 34% of workshop participants reported having hunted, and another 45% said they would probably hunt in the future. Overall, workshops attracted a diverse population of potential hunters, increased interest in future hunting, and created hunting advocates. Findings highlight the potentially powerful impact that R3 programs focused on diverse college students can have on the future of hunting across the United States.

Biological research on sea star wasting disease (SSWD) is abundant, but there is little examining the human dimensions of this threat to marine environments. This article explored public emotions and cognitions (attitudes, norms) toward SSWD, and how these concepts are related to knowledge and risk perceptions associated with this threat. Data were from a survey of residents in the coastal and most populated regions of Oregon (n = 507). Respondents were grouped by their risk and knowledge, and shown five images depicting deteriorating conditions associated with SSWD, with questions measuring cognitions and emotions in response to each image. Knowledge about SSWD was quite low, and respondents perceived SSWD as a moderate risk to marine environments and a slight risk to themselves. As both knowledge and risk increased, awareness increased and emotions, attitudes, and norms became more negative, especially as SSWD conditions deteriorated. Implications and explanations of these findings were discussed.

This article examines overtourism indicators at Kailua Beach Park in HawaiModified Letter Turned Commai, and demonstrates a systematic approach to assessing carrying capacity by pairing descriptive indicators with more commonly used evaluative indicators. Data were obtained from an onsite survey of 452 visitors. Questionnaires with embedded photographs measured visitors' perceived encounters, norms, and crowding (evaluative indicators), while an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) was used to collect actual use levels at the site (descriptive indicator). In total, 63% of respondents felt crowded at this site, suggesting that it is nearing over-capacity. Respondent norms showed that no more than approximately 950 people should be allowed. Use levels exceeding 700 people caused respondents to feel moderately or extremely crowded, yet use levels commonly exceeded this threshold. Standards representing these numeric thresholds should be set at this site, and management action is critical (e.g., quotas, reservations, fees, encourage alternative sites). This research contributes to the literature by demonstrating the importance of all four indicators (use levels, encounters, norms, crowding) when investigating overtourism issues, and the potential of UAVs to support the measurement of descriptive indicators.

Research models applying social exchange theory to examine factors predicting residents’ support for tourism have been challenged for their inability to explain support fully. Recent studies drawing from other theories indicated factors that arguably play a role in the social exchange relationship between perceptions of tourism impacts and support. One factor of interest is the cognitive appraisal process eliciting emotional solidarity with tourists (ES), which arguably predicts support. According to cognitive appraisal theory (CAT), residents' emotional feelings toward tourists result from a mental evaluation of how tourism is perceived to impact one's wellbeing. Although tourism studies applying CAT are emerging, knowledge is limited about the cognitive appraisal process that elicits ES. This article examines the nature of a cognitive appraisal process eliciting ES. Data were obtained from a random sample of 1477 residents of Oregon, United States. Results from a structural equation model, show that perceived positive tourism impacts strongly predict ES. Additionally, perceived positive tourism impacts indirectly impact ES through the expected change of wellbeing. This study also reveals that perceived negative community tourism impacts have a negative relationship with ES. Moreover, ES strongly predicts support. The article closes with a discussion of research and management implications.

Ecological studies on ocean acidification (OA) are abundant, but there are only a few studies examining the human dimensions (social science) of this threat to marine environments. This article explored public emotions and cognitions (attitudes, norms) toward OA, and how these concepts are related to knowledge and risk perceptions associated with this threat. Data were from a survey of residents in the coastal and most populated regions of Oregon, USA (n = 507). Respondents were grouped by their risk and knowledge, and shown four images depicting deteriorating conditions associated with OA, with questions measuring cognitions and emotions in response to each image. Knowledge about OA was quite low, and respondents perceived OA as a moderate risk to marine environments and a slight risk to themselves. As both knowledge and risk increased, awareness increased and emotions, attitudes, and norms became more negative, especially as conditions deteriorated. Implications and explanations of these findings were discussed.

Research regarding tourism’s effect on the subjective well-being (SWB) of destination residents has provided important insight, but it generally has relied on indirect analyses and diverse measures. This study used livability theory and a novel contingent SWB method in which respondents directly reported anticipated SWB effects. This method is exploratory, but it provides greater confidence in causal relationships. Results from a general population survey in Oregon (USA) suggested the method functioned as intended. County-level population growth and visitor intensity predicted perceived current impacts of tourism. In turn, perceived impacts predicted change in SWB contingent on a vignette reflecting a 20% increase in tourists. Across all individuals and counties, average SWB changes were negative for the environment domain and positive for other domains. Practical implications are discussed, with the most positive SWB effects from tourism development expected to occur in counties with low visitor intensity, especially those with low population growth.

This article explored attitudes toward using genetic engineering (GE) for restoring American chestnut (AC) trees, and cognitive and socio-demographic factors related to these attitudes. Questionnaires were completed by a random representative sample of the US public (n = 278) and a purposive sample of forest interest groups (FIG) such as scientists and managers (n = 195). Results showed somewhat positive attitudes toward all three GE applications (change existing AC genes, add genes from distantly related organism to AC, add oxalate oxidase [OxO] gene from bread wheat to AC) for mitigating chestnut blight (CB) and restoring AC trees. FIGs were more aware of CB, had more favorable attitudes, and perceived greater benefits and lower risks of these GE uses. Perceived benefits and risks were among the strongest drivers of attitudes for both groups, with environmental benefits the most strongly related to attitudes toward all three GE uses for the public sample and two of the three uses for the FIGs. Benefits and risks to humans, general environmental value orientations, specific value orientations toward forests, trust in agencies, awareness about CB, and socio-demographic characteristics (e.g., age, income, education, political orientation, forestry involvement, residential proximity to forests) were not as strongly related to these attitudes. These findings can inform research on reactions to using GE for conservation, and enable organizations to effectively communicate about using emerging technologies (e.g., GE) for addressing natural resource challenges.

Data from two studies examined the: (a) attitudes and behavioral intentions of the public regarding the use of genetic engineering (GE) for addressing chestnut blight and helping to restore American chestnut trees (AC); and (b) extent that these attitudes and intentions are susceptible to message framing. Data from a representative sample of the United States public (n = 278) showed this sample felt, on average, neutral to slightly positive about using GE to restore AC trees. The majority (57%) would vote for this use of GE and were certain of these intentions. Data from an experiment (multiple treatments) conducted with other members of the public (n = 528), however, showed that these attitudes and intentions are susceptible to persuasion, as both between- and within-subjects comparisons showed that support dropped dramatically once messages provided negative or opposing arguments. Negatively worded information coupled with messages about scientific consensus in opposition yielded the most negative responses.

ABSTRACTDeclining participation in hunting, especially among young adult hunters, affects the ability of state and federal agencies to achieve goals for wildlife management and decreases revenue for conservation. For wildlife agencies hoping to engage diverse audiences in hunter recruitment, retention, and reactivation (R3) efforts, university settings provide unique advantages: they contain millions of young adults who are developmentally primed to explore new activities, and they cultivate a social atmosphere where new identities can flourish. From 2018 to 2020, we surveyed 17,203 undergraduate students at public universities across 22 states in the United States to explore R3 potential on college campuses and assess key demographic, social, and cognitive correlates of past and intended future hunting behavior. After weighting to account for demographic differences between our sample and the larger student population, 29% of students across all states had hunted in the past. Students with previous hunting experience were likely to be white, male, from rural areas or hunting families, and pursuing degrees related to natural resources. When we grouped students into 1 of 4 categories with respect to hunting (i.e., non‐hunters [50%], potential hunters [22%], active hunters [26%], and lapsed hunters [3%]), comparisons revealed differences based on demographic attributes, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Compared to active hunters, potential hunters were more likely to be females or racial and ethnic minorities, and less likely to experience social support for hunting. Potential hunters valued game meat and altruistic reasons for hunting, but they faced unique constraints due to lack of hunting knowledge and skills. Findings provide insights for marketing and programming designed to achieve R3 objectives with a focus on university students. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.

Psychological restoration and place attachment may be related to beliefs about environmental governance, with place attachment a likely mediator. We analyze data from a public survey in the Puget Sound area of Washington state (n = 2323) regarding beliefs about environmental governance, place attachment to the Puget Sound area, and psychological restoration related to this area. On average, individuals felt neutral in their beliefs about environmental governance, had high place attachment, and had high frequency of psychological restoration in natural environments. Structural equation modeling indicated that those who more frequently experienced psychological restoration from natural environments had stronger place attachment and more positive beliefs about environmental governance. Place attachment was significantly associated with governance perceptions, but explained only a small portion of variance (R2 = 0.02), while psychological restoration was significantly associated with place attachment and explained a moderate portion of its variance (R2 = 0.37). Place attachment fully mediated the effects of frequency of psychological restoration on beliefs about governance. Promoting psychological restoration and place attachment without attending to the process factors associated with good governance would not likely be a viable strategy for environmental managers to substantially increase positive beliefs about environmental governance.

This article examined trust, perceived risks and benefits, and normative acceptance associated with using breeding and genetic engineering (GE) to restore American chestnut (AC) trees. Questionnaires were completed by a random representative sample of the public in the United States (n = 278) and a purposive sample of forest interest groups (FIG) such as scientists and managers (n = 195). These concepts were examined in relation to breeding (breed the AC with chestnut trees from Asia) and GE (add the oxalate oxidase [OxO] gene from bread wheat to the AC) approaches for mitigating chestnut blight and restoring AC trees. The public sample considered adding the gene from bread wheat (GE) to be more beneficial and slightly more acceptable, but also slightly riskier, compared to the breeding approach. The FIGs viewed the breeding approach to be more acceptable, less risky, and more beneficial than the GE approach. The FIGs viewed both approaches as less risky, more beneficial, and more acceptable than did the public sample. Path analysis showed that: (i) perceived environmental benefits were the strongest predictors of normative acceptance of both approaches for the public sample, (ii) perceived environmental risks were the strongest predictors of acceptance of both approaches for the FIGs, (iii) human benefits and risks were mostly unrelated to acceptance, and (iv) trust in government agencies charged with managing forests was only weakly associated with benefits, risks, and acceptance. Implications of these results for both research and management were discussed.

ABSTRACT We examined the extent that hunters’ perceptions of risks related to chronic wasting disease (CWD) and trust in state wildlife agencies to address CWD were related to their demographic (sex, age, education, residence) and hunting (CWD presence, type of hunter, years hunting in state, harvest) characteristics. Demographic and hunting characteristics have been suggested by some managers and researchers to be strongly related to perceived risks and trust in wildlife agencies. We obtained data from a mail survey ( n = 9,567) of hunters in 8 states (2004). Demographic and hunting characteristics were statistically related to both risk and trust, but the relationships were complex for several reasons. First, although the demographic variables were significantly related to both risk and trust in 11 of the 15 tests, almost all of the effect sizes (η) were minimal (<0.100; = 0.051). For the hunting characteristics, 11 of the 12 tests were significant ( P ≤ 0.038), but the average effect size was only 0.059. Second, hierarchical linear regression analyses indicated that although 65% of the beta coefficients (another effect size indicator) were significant ( P < 0.001), the average standardized regression coefficient was only 0.066 (minimal). Third, not all demographic and hunting characteristics were related to risk and trust in the same manner. For example, in the regression models, sex was never statistically significant. Other variables (resident of the state, education, harvest) were always significant. Finally, all R 2 (explained variance) were <5%. The weak relationships between demographic and hunting characteristics and both risk and trust suggest that managers should be cautious when targeting communication messages about CWD to specific subgroups of hunters based on these characteristics. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.

Despite growing public pressure to use non-lethal strategies for managing predators (e.g., sharks) in marine ecosystems, the response of many governments remains largely lethal. This article examined recreationist support and understanding of approaches for managing sharks in two of South Africa’s marine areas. Questionnaires completed by 575 ocean recreationists at beaches near Cape Town and Durban showed they strongly disagreed with lethal management of sharks. The non-lethal Shark Spotters program was the most strongly supported strategy, followed by heat sensor cameras to detect sharks. Other non-lethal strategies (exclusion nets, personal repellent devices, deterrent cables, camouflage wetsuits) were supported by fewer than 50% of respondents, but were still more strongly supported than specific lethal strategies (shark hunts, drumlines, shark nets). Shark Spotters was more strongly supported near Cape Town, whereas the lethal strategies and a few of the other non-lethal approaches (personal electric repellent devices, electric deterrent cables, exclusion nets) were more strongly supported near Durban. Few respondents understood that shark nets and drumlines are designed to catch and kill large sharks. Understanding the function of shark nets correlated negatively with support for their use and positively with support for temporary exclusion nets. Implications of these results were discussed within the framework of a global transition from lethal to non-lethal management.