Women's sport organizations face unique barriers that can shape the experiences of employees. However, research has yet to fully explore this phenomenon. We address this gap by using case study methodology and conducting semi-structured interviews with 28 United States-based current or recent past employees of women's sport organizations. We use stigma theory alongside the related concepts of dirty work and emotional labor. Our findings highlight that structural stigma is a regular part of the workplace experience as employees observe the devaluation and mistreatment of women's sport both in society at large and within the sport industry. These encounters influence employees as they personally field disparaging questions and comments based on their affiliation with women's sport organizations. Such experiences with stigma suggest that working in women's sport is a form of dirty work, an occupation that is devalued. Further, frequent disrespect and devaluation require employees to engage in emotional labor to manage their responses and continue to perform their core job tasks. Despite these difficult experiences, women's sport employees have found ways to cope. One such way is focusing on how women's sport is growing. As employees champion the growth narrative they actively contribute to the destigmatization of women's sport and find meaning in their work. This helps them manage the stigma that continues to linger. These findings expose the ways in which sport employees experience and manage (de)stigmatization.

Purpose - This article examines how geographic location (i.e. local or nonlocal) influences fans' communicative convergence or distinctiveness in the context of an informal online fan community (i.e. Twitter [X]). Nonlocal fans, who live geographically distant from the team they support, derive distinctiveness and belonging from supporting a team from afar. This study considers how these needs materialize in online communication. Design/methodology/approach - Text mining and textual analysis were employed to collect and evaluate tweets (N = 12,865) in terms of expressed emotion. Tweets were evaluated using the NRC VAD sentiment lexicon (i.e. valence, arousal, dominance) and then categorized based on geographic location and in-group/out-group status. The resulting groups were then analyzed with a two-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to examine how geographic location relates to the expressed emotion of tweets. Findings - The findings indicate nonlocal fans expressed statistically greater arousal compared to local online community members, reflecting their distinctiveness as nonlocal fans. Nonlocal and local fans expressed similar degrees of valence and dominance in their language, suggesting nonlocal fans converge communication behavior, seeking social approval from the salient online fan community. Originality/value - This study suggests that geographic location influences communication behavior in online fan communities. Moreover, nonlocal fans may be valuable, and underutilized, advocates for sports teams in online community settings.

Recent market growth in women’s sport has happened as fans increasingly support brands that embrace social issues, suggesting that women’s sport houses multiple logics (financial and social) that may be compatible. The purpose of this study is to explore employees’ perspectives of the logics in women’s sport and how these influence their workplace experiences. Using a case study design, we interviewed 15 women’s sport employees. We observed that they navigate both financial and social logics, which they see as compatible. This understanding of a complementary relationship has both behavioral (e.g., collaboration) and emotional (e.g., collective anxiety) consequences for employees. Notably, collective anxiety is simultaneously associated with negative effects and positive coping mechanisms, demonstrating its complexity in shaping individuals’ actions. This research advances understanding of how employees respond to multiple logics and the effects of this process. Insights from this study can help women’s sport managers better support workers.

Guided by network theory, the purpose of this paper is to explore the consumption networks of Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) fans. Through an egocentric network analysis, the authors utilize hierarchical linear modeling to examine the strength of consumption ties among WNBA fans during the 2019 season. Initial results revealed an unexpected finding: the presence of participants who reported having no fan -to -fan ties, whom we term IsoFans. A second sample of men's basketball fans was then collected to serve as a comparative confirmation of the unexpected result, whereby IsoFans occurred in the men's sport sample at a much lower rate. In the third step of the study, the authors examine the differences between WNBA fans consuming in isolation, IsoFans, and WNBA fans consuming with alters, whom we call Social Fans. Results from the hierarchical linear modeling of Social Fans revealed that attributes of both ego (i.e., focal fan) and alter (i.e., individual with whom ego shares a tie) affect the strength of fan -to -fan ties within the women's sport context.

Transgender inclusion continues to be a hotly debated topic; however, research focusing on inclusion’s relationship with organizational outcomes is lacking. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among public transgender policies, community-level transgender biases, and measures of organizational effectiveness in the context of US intercollegiate athletics. Data were collected through archival sources from 224 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I athletic departments. Transgender policies and community biases were not related to athletic performance, but they were related to gender equity. Cluster analyses revealed unique profiles of athletic departments with inclusive transgender policies and low community bias levels. These athletic departments outperformed their peers in both measures of effectiveness. Transgender policies related to greater gender equity. Such policies signal an organizational commitment to fostering inclusivity and equal opportunities for all gender identities, which can contribute to more inclusive sport organizations. The study’s findings underscore the significance of addressing contextual biases. By addressing biases, aligning policies with community values, and promoting inclusive practices, sport organizations can foster an environment that not only enhances athlete well-being but also contributes to overall organizational success.

Purpose Sport organizations increasingly emphasize their support for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ) inclusion by promoting a perfect score on the Athlete Ally Equality Index, partnering with nonprofits to increase awareness of LGBTQ individuals in sport (e.g. Rainbow Laces campaign), or hosting a pride night for LGBTQ fans. Despite these and similar efforts, LGBTQ fans historically have felt unwelcome in sport settings, thereby signaling the need for inclusive fan codes of conduct. The purpose of this study was to examine both the prevalence and antecedents of such policies. Design/methodology/approach Using publicly available data sources, the authors focused on 350 Division 1 college athletic departments in the USA. Findings Results illustrate factors at both the macro (i.e. institution) and meso- (i.e. athletic department) levels interact to explain whether a school will possess a fan code of conduct. Specifically, research-intensive institutions with strong gender equity are more likely to possess a code of conduct than schools that are not research oriented and have weak gender equity. This project extends the understanding of LBGTQ inclusion in the sports industry. Originality/value The current study is the first to examine the prevalence and predictors of LGBTQ-inclusive fan codes of conduct. Understanding these dynamics can help athletic programs that want to create safe and inclusive sport spaces for LGBTQ fans and spectators.

This paper presents a conceptual model to understand the relationship between everyday resistance and women's sport. Everyday resistance refers to when members of an oppressed group engage in mundane actions (i.e., playing sports) to resist dominant power structures and social norms. After reviewing resistance literature, we identify two levels of everyday resistance for women's sport: women's sport as everyday resistance and everyday resistance within women's sport. The former refers to when women participate in sport, thereby challenging social norms that marginalize women in society and exclude them from sport. The latter refers to how women athletes with intersecting marginalized identities resist the norms of who participates in women's sport and how, given the norms of sport that privilege whiteness, heteronormativity, and higher social classes among others. The model we introduce advances both sport scholarship and everyday resistance literature and can help scholars conceptualize how women create change in sport and in society-as well as how women athletes create change within women's sport, specifically.

This article is written in response to the collective “reckoning” with anti-Black violence in 2020. We share our perspective in solidarity with the long traditions, and contemporary, everyday actions of survival and resistance from millions of unnamed members of Black, Indigenous, and other racialized communities across the world. This article calls in the field of sport management, while calling attention to ways anti-Blackness has permeated the academy. Through observations, reflections, and interrogation of literature in the field, we illustrate the invisibility/marginality/erasure of Blackness in this body of knowledge and discuss missed opportunities for sport management. With the hope that the field will transform into a more inclusive, equitable, and just intellectual space, representative of Black, Indigenous, and other racialized voices, perspectives, experiences, and cultures, and accountable to rectifying the injustices inflicted upon Black and other racialized bodies, we offer calls to action for everyone in the field to consider.

Sport consumer behavior researchers have developed a robust understanding of how and why people consume sport, and the consequences of consumption. There has been little reflection, however, on the settings or populations used to study consumers and develop theory. In acknowledging the importance of diversity, equity, and inclusion to advance both theory and practice, the authors conducted a scoping review of diversity in sport consumer behavior research, focusing on four sport management journals. The review revealed a widespread lack of diversity, with most studies focusing on men’s sport in highly commercialized settings. Furthermore, study participants often identify as White men, middle-aged or young, educated, and with at least some disposable income. Leveraging an institutional work lens, the authors address taken-for-granted norms that may have contributed to these trends and propose solutions.

Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine how identity covering techniques can influence raters' perceptions of job candidates who have a socially stigmatized identity. Specifically, the authors explore how raters respond to two types of candidates: one who does not mention his gay identity during the interview process, and one who openly discusses their gay identity during the interview process. The authors also investigate whether job type (sport operations vs business operations) and the rater's views toward social equality influence perceptions of job fit and subsequent hiring recommendations. Design/methodology/approach The authors conducted an experiment to examine whether an applicant's level of stigma covering, type of job posting and rater's views toward social equality influenced perceptions of job fit. The authors then tested whether perceptions of job fit mediated hiring recommendations. Adults in the USA (n = 237) who were employed and had served on a hiring committees participated in the survey. Findings When applying for sport operations jobs, as opposed to business operations jobs, gay male applicants are viewed more favorably if they engage in high levels of identity covering. Further, the applicant's level of stigma covering influenced raters who reported high or moderate social dominance orientation but did not impact raters with low social dominance orientation. Overall, the findings reveal that identity covering techniques do have relevance for studying the dynamics of hiring gay men who apply for jobs in the sport industry. Originality/value The study advances the understanding of identity management techniques by examining the nuances of how applicants can choose to disclose their stigmatized identity, and how those decision influence the hiring process.

PurposeThe purpose of this research was to examine the role of intersectionality (multiple marginalized identities) in narratives used within online media coverage of women's sports. The authors adopted an intersectionality lens and drew from sports media literature to explore the representation of Black athletes in women's sport.Design/methodology/approachThe authors conducted a quantitative content analysis of online articles from ESPN, CBS Sports and Sports Illustrated from the 2020 WNBA Season. The authors coded the number of times an athlete was mentioned in an article, the athlete's race, publicly disclosed sexual orientation and gender expression. The authors used hierarchical regression to examine the relationship between an athlete's social identities and frequency of media mentions.FindingsWithin mainstream online sport media, Black WNBA athletes receive less media attention than white WNBA athletes. Black athletes who do not present in traditionally feminine ways receive the least amount of media attention, while white athletes have the freedom to express their gender in a variety of ways and still capture media interest. Within league press releases, however, there is no difference in media mentions based on race, sexual orientation or gender expression.Practical implicationsThe findings in this research are important for sport media professionals who write stories and player-activists who are pursuing racial justice. Outlets should commit to antiracist storytelling practices. Players, player agents and players' associations—all of whom have shown their power to create change for a more equitable industry and society—should also advocate for and organize around practices that create more equitable media coverage.Originality/valueThis study is one of the few empirical investigations of women's professional sport that examines the influence of intersecting social identities.

Scholars have begun to explore the interplay between the multiple identities within a sport fan’s salience hierarchy, noting fandom may compete with other central roles. Researchers have also recently emphasized well-being outcomes for fans, with increasing focus on physical health. Though sport consumer behavior and health consciousness have concurrently emerged, the social psychological connection between the two is unclear. Thus, we aim to clarify this relationship. We leverage an emerging quantitative approach: polynomial regression and response surface methodology. Our findings indicate individuals who value both fandom and health consciousness (i.e., demonstrate high fan identity and health consciousness congruence) experience identity conflict, with men reporting higher levels of identity conflict than women. Thus, we contribute to literature on the potential negative sides (or challenges) of fan identity. The food and sedentarism common to fan culture appear to prompt psychological turmoil for health-conscious individuals. Fan identity may naturally integrate with other social roles, yet our results indicate fandom and health consciousness are often viewed in conflict.

Institutional work, defined as the actions aimed at creating, disrupting, and maintaining institutions, has become an important framework within sport organization research. Despite important theoretical advances, scholars have called for more research to better develop theoretical understandings of how embedded actors influence institutions. The aim of this paper is to examine how individual actors may engage in relational institutional work within sport organizations through prosocial behaviors. In this paper, the authors outline how prosocial behaviors such as organizational citizenship behaviors, whistleblowing, voice behaviors, mentoring, knowledge-sharing, and brokering introductions may impact the creation, maintenance, and disruption of institutions. Thus, this paper extends the institutional work framework by explicating how daily interactions impact institutionalization within sport settings.

Questions about transgender individuals’ place in sport persist. Therefore, the purpose of this paper was to focus on transgender inclusion in sport. Drawing from varied perspectives, the authors present five reasons for inclusion, basing their arguments on sport as a human right, fairness, gendered notions of athleticism, well-being, and economics. The authors then present a multilevel model for including transgender athletes, coaches, and administrators in sport, identifying factors at the macro-, meso-, and micro-levels of analysis.

Gay men in sport are currently at a historic crossroads. On the one hand, the sport industry has never been more accepting and inclusive of sexual minorities than it is today. On the other hand, however, the sociocultural norms and organizational practices within sport that have traditionally stigmatized gay men and influenced their career choices-both in pursuit of and persistence within careers in sport-continue to exist. Drawing from life course theory, the purpose of this study was to qualitatively explore the experiences of 12 gay men working in the sport industry and understand how their awareness (or lack thereof) of the stigma associated with being gay shaped their career decisions. Findings suggest that historical/social context, organizational practices, personal and professional relationships, and the interplay between these factors inform how gay men navigate their stigmatized identities while working in sport.

As sport has gradually become more accepting of LGBTQ individuals, sport organizations have attempted to connect with this lucrative market. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the existing research that examines sport marketing issues related to LGBTQ individuals in sport. In doing so, the authors provide a multilevel model for understanding sport consumer perceptions of LGBTQ-inclusive marketing initiatives and highlight key contributions. The authors conclude by offering suggestions for future research. Based on the review of literature, authentic signals of inclusion can generate positive outcomes for fans and sport organizations. However, there is a need to create inclusive spectator sport spaces where LGBTQ fans feel safe and accepted.

The purpose of this study is to utilize egocentric network analysis to predict repurchase behaviors for college football season-ticket holders. Using a research approach grounded in network theory, we included the relational and behavioral characteristics of sport fans in a binomial regression model to predict renewal decisions among college football season-ticket holders. More specifically, we developed a model that incorporates the egocentric network variables, past behavior, and behavioral intentions to empirically test which consumer characteristics predict future behavior. Building on previous research emphasizing the role of socializing agents and social connections in sport fan consumption, through the use of egocentric network analysis, we examined the effects of social structure and social context on repurchasing decisions. Moreover, the present study is positioned within the larger discourse on season-ticket holders, as we aimed to add a network theory perspective to the existing research on season-ticket holder churn and renewal.

This chapter explores how the intersection of multiple marginalized social identities impacts women's experiences and opportunities in sport. It reviews the tenets of intersectionality theory and then discusses outcomes related to multiple marginalized identities, such as minority stress and identity management techniques. The chapter presents sport industry perspectives from women with diverse identities and outlines three constructs within intersectionality theory. They include representational intersectionality, political intersectionality, and structural intersectionality. Exposure to inaccurate cultural representations, encountering organizational structures and systems that limit one's experiences and opportunities, and feeling conflicting pressures from different social groups adversely affects minority members in several ways. Manifestations of minority stress at the individual level (e.g., depression, low self-esteem, low job satisfaction) can also significantly influence group, team, or organizational outcomes. The women also recognized that sports' institutionalized values and practices reinforced gender and racial stereotypes related to leadership abilities.

IntroductionSince the 1970s, consumers have become increasingly aware of the effect and organizations have on the natural environment (McCullough & Cunningham, 2010; Shrivastava, 1995). It is common for consumers to hear and read about the environmental impacts and carbon footprints organizations make while conducting day-to-day business operations (Mazar & Zhong, 2010). As such, the green consumer began to emerge in the 1980s and 1990s, evolved during the environmental movement, and now has a heightened environmental consciousness that guides their buying behavior (Peattie, 2001; Straughan & Roberts, 1999). To attract these consumers, an array of environmentally, or eco, sustainable products are now provided to attract this consumer market, as well as others that might not necessarily identify themselves as green consumers. In addition to offering environmental sustainable products, also try to limit the adverse effect their organization has on the environment as a way to attract consumers (Krause, 1993; Straughan & Roberts). In order to appeal to this target market, it is important for organizations to understand how their environmental initiatives, or lack thereof, influence purchasing decisions and consumer perceptions.As environmental disasters, like the 2010 British Petroleum Deepwater Horizon oil spill, become more apparent, these events can affect consumer's perceptions of a company and their products. That is, companies that do not add environmental thinking to their strategy ... risk missing upside opportunities in markets that are increasingly shaped by environmental factors (Esty & Winston, 2006, p. 10). To this end, sport firms committed to protecting the environment may be able to achieve economic success in an increasingly competitive marketplace (McCullough & Cunningham, 2010), by becoming aware of how their organization's environmental image is perceived by others (Behrend, Baker, & Thompson, 2010). Incorporating environmental aspects to an organization's strategy has been conceptualized to explain why more develop and implement green business models that act in accordance with popular environmental trends in society (Trail, 2015; 2016). However, in order to benefit from these actions, consumers must believe a sport entity is a credible advocate for environmental causes. To do so requires that the characteristics of the green campaign, as well as the characteristics of the organization align with the values and concerns of environmentally conscious consumers (Inoue & Kent, 2012).Unfortunately, environmental sustainability programs have faced challenges in creating an environmentally credible image among consumers, particularly in the sport industry (Show, 2009). Much to this end, almost half of sport executives surveyed indicated that environmental initiatives are mostly a marketing gimmick within the sport industry (Show). The limited success of these programs and the perceptions of executives within the industry could be attributed to the paucity of scholarly articles that focus on consumer purchase intentions and perceptions regarding environmentally sustainable business practices and products (Pickett-Baker & Ozaki, 2008), in particular surrounding the sport industry (Chard, Mallen, & Bradish, 2013).Building on the recommendations made by Chard and colleagues (2013) to develop a research response to the lack of for environmental sustainability research, we examine the influence of corporate (Balmer, 1997, 2001, 2009) concerning environmental communications on consumers' perceptions of an organization and their subsequent buying intentions. Specifically, we draw from signaling theory (Rynes, 1991; Spence, 1974) and social dominance theory (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999) to examine how signals regarding environmental initiatives affect perceptions of an organization and buying behavior. …