Anticoagulants are commonly used for hematologic evaluation of reptile blood samples to prevent clotting and facilitate manual leukocyte and erythrocyte quantification. While lithium heparin (LH) is typically the recommended anticoagulant for hematology in reptiles, studies comparing the effects of different anticoagulants have occasionally reported di- and tri-potassium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) to be preferable in squamates. The purpose of this study was to compare hematologic parameters from prehensile-tailed skink (PTS; Corucia zebrata ) blood samples anticoagulated with LH and dipotassium EDTA to determine whether resulting data differ based on anticoagulant. Blood was collected from the ventral tail vein of PTSs (n = 18) in professionally managed care and samples were evenly divided between one LH and one EDTA microtainer. Blood smears were created using LH, EDTA, and fresh, non anticoagulated whole blood samples. Packed cell volume (PCV), total protein (TP) by refractometry and by biuret method, 100-cell differential counts, white blood cell (WBC) and red blood cell (RBC) counts by hemocytometry, and estimated WBC counts by slide evaluation were compared between anticoagulants. No gross or microscopic hemolysis was observed in any sample. There were no statistically significant differences between total WBC counts or any WBC type (heterophil, lymphocyte, azurophil, monocyte, eosinophil, or basophil) between LH and EDTA samples by either hemocytometry or by slide estimate. With the exception of eosinophil counts (P = 0.20), all leukocyte counts produced by hemocytometry were significantly greater than those produced by slide estimation for both LH and EDTA anticoagulated samples (P < 0.05). These results indicate that both dipotassium EDTA and LH anticoagulants may be used for PTS hematology. In conclusion, when evaluating hematology results from multiple samples, only those using the same anticoagulant and methodology should be directly compared.

African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) chicks in human care can develop perosis, also known as medial luxation of the gastrocnemius tendon. This case series presents four cases of perosis in African penguin chicks and their differing therapeutic approaches. Conservative management appears to have limited success compared to surgical approaches. However, surgical repair comes with risks of severe postoperative complications. Limiting excessive growth of penguin chicks, addressing perosis in a timely fashion, and aggressive pre- and postoperative antibiotic therapy appear to increase success of therapy.

Axolotls (Ambystoma mexicanum) are critically endangered paedomorphic salamanders with remarkable regenerative capacity. While nearly extinct in the wild, they are commonly maintained in captivity as companion animals, zoological display animals, and biomedical research colonies, where they serve as an animal model for genetics, developmental biology, and regenerative medicine. This report documents a case series of spontaneous myeloid leukemia in genetically related, co-housed adult axolotls in a zoological collection that resulted in 50% overall mortality over 38 months. Affected axolotls exhibited a range of signs, including generalized edema, hydrocoelom, long-term wasting, and sudden death. The most common gross lesions were splenomegaly (5/10) and hepatomegaly (4/10). Microscopically, widespread intravascular neoplasia, consisting of large round cells, was consistently observed (10/10). Neoplastic cells infiltrated and effaced the parenchyma of numerous visceral organs, particularly the spleen and liver. Cytochemical staining of neoplastic cells in blood smears showed strong positive cytoplasmic reactivity for α-naphthyl butyrate esterase and α-chloroacetate esterase and weak staining with periodic-acid Schiff. In tissues, neoplastic cells did not react with Sudan black B and did not express CD3 or ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (IBA-1). The morphologic features of the cells and phenotyping tests supported acute myeloid leukemia. This report represents the first documentation of acute myeloid leukemia in caudates.

Both blood and liver samples can be used to evaluate vitamin, mineral, and heavy metal concentrations clinically. In elasmobranchs, it is unknown whether circulating concentrations of these analytes reflect concentrations in storage organs such as the liver. The purpose of this study was to report hepatic concentrations of select heavy metals and to compare concentrations of select vitamins and minerals in paired blood and liver samples in captive elasmobranchs. Blood (serum or lithium heparinized plasma) samples collected perimortem and hepatic tissue samples collected during necropsy from 27 elasmobranchs were included. Taxa (order, species), sex (male, female), and age class (immature, mature) were recorded. Vitamin A, vitamin E, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc were measured in both blood and liver. Arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and thallium concentrations were reported for liver only. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each analyte. Statistical analysis was performed with scatter plots with fitted regression lines, box plots, and a multiple linear regression model for multivariate analysis. Only the correlation between blood and liver concentrations of molybdenum (P < 0.001), cobalt (P = 0.001), iron (P = 0.014), and vitamin A (P = 0.020) were statistically significant. Significant differences in blood manganese and molybdenum, and hepatic vitamin A, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc were found between taxonomic orders. However, no differences based on sex or age class were detected. Future research is needed to elucidate the clinical significance of circulating versus tissue vitamin and mineral concentrations in elasmobranchs.

Coagulation testing may aid veterinarians in the early identification and management of disease. Clinical application of these diagnostics may be hampered by delays associated with transporting samples to central veterinary laboratories, especially when working in remote locations. The objective of this study was to compare prothrombin times (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin times (aPTT) in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) determined by a point-of-care (POC) analyzer to those determined by a standard laboratory unit. Captive elephants (n = 64) of both sexes and three age classes (juvenile, adult, and geriatric) in Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand, underwent venipuncture during routine clinical assessment. PT and aPTT were determined immediately using a handheld POC device (qLabs Coag Panel 2, Micropoint Biotechnologies Inc., Shekou, Shenzen, Guandong 518067, China). Citrated plasma was used to determine PT and aPTT at the veterinary diagnostic laboratory at Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, on a standard analyzer (Sysmex Automated Blood Coagulation Analyzer CA-500 Series, Sysmex Corporation, Kobe, Hyogo 651-0073 Japan) 24-31 h following venipuncture. Results were compared by Bland-Altman plots and Passing-Bablock regression analyses. There were significant systematic, constant and proportional biases for PT and aPTT for both analyzers. The POC analyzer significantly overestimated PT and aPTT values by a mean of 11.9 s (95% confidence interval [CI], 11.4-12.4 s) and 117.6 s (95% CI, 115.0-120.1 s), respectively. The results of this study show a large discrepancy between PT and aPTT values between a POC coagulometer and standard analyzer, confirming the need for analyzer-specific reference intervals for their use in clinical care.

The paraphyletic group referred to as fishes represents several extant and extinct classes that demonstrate the greatest diversity and abundance of any of the vertebrates on the Earth. Anatomically and physiologically, the systems of fish are comparable to those of other vertebrates and the thyroid and hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis are no exceptions. This article reviews the current literature on thyroid endocrinology of elasmobranch and teleost fishes with an emphasis on relevance to clinical management and highlights some of the anatomic and physiologic differences of the HPT axis in fishes.

Linnaeus's two-toed sloth (Choloepus didactylus) is one of two extant neotropical species of the family Megalonychidae. Despite their being commonly kept under managed care, the digestive physiology of sloths remains poorly understood. Gastrointestinal disease has been reported as a primary or contributing cause of morbidity and mortality in captive two-toed and three-toed (Bradypus spp.) sloths. Gastric dilatation due to gas accumulation (“bloat”) has been reported in sloths; however, a literature search failed to yield any published mention of gastric volvulus in any sloth species. Following an inquiry sent to the electronic mailing lists of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, the European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians, and the LatinVets community, three cases of fatal gastric dilatation and volvulus (GDV) were identified in one male and two female Linnaeus's two-toed sloths from institutions in the United States, Canada, and Germany. All cases occurred in juvenile sloths <1 yr of age. Two animals were primarily hand reared, whereas one was reared primarily by its dam. Two animals were found dead with no overt premonitory signs, whereas one animal died following a 3-wk course of waxing and waning clinical signs consistent with gastric gas accumulation. In all cases, GDV was diagnosed on postmortem examination. Similar to other species, the condition is likely subsequent to a combination of host- and husbandry-related contributing factors. Further research into sloth husbandry is required in order to take an evidence-based approach to their management.

Abstract Background The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), which is an endangered species, harbors several parasites. Among the ectoparasites that it harbors, ear mites of the genus Loxanoetus have the potential to cause external otitis, an inflammation that may also be associated with the presence of other microorganisms. We assessed the relationships between ear mites, nematodes, yeast, bacterial rods, and cocci sampled from the ears of captive Asian elephants in Thailand. In addition, we discuss the possibility that dust-bathing behavior may be triggered by ear mite infestation, and that this in turn may lead to contamination of the ears with soil microorganisms. Methods Legally owned captive Asian elephants (n = 64) were sampled. Ear swabs were individually collected from both ears and microscopically examined for the presence of mites, nematodes, yeast, bacterial rods, cocci, and host cells. Mites and nematodes were identified to species level using morphological and molecular methods. Results Loxanoetus lenae mites were present in 43.8% (n = 28/64) of the animals (19 animals with mites in one ear and nine animals with mites in both ears). Nematodes of the genus Panagrolaimus were detected in 23.4% (n = 15/64) of the animals (10 with nematodes in one ear and five with nematodes in both ears). In adult elephants (Fisher’s exact test, P = 0.0278) and female elephants (Fisher’s exact test, P = 0.0107), the presence of nematodes in both ears was significantly associated with the presence of mites. In addition, higher categorical burdens of nematodes were also significantly associated with the presence of mites (Fisher’s exact test, P = 0.0234) and epithelial cells (Fisher’s exact test, P = 0.0108), and marginally significantly associated with bacterial cocci (Fisher’s exact test, P = 0.0499). Conclusions The presence of L. lenae mites in the ear canals of the Asian elephants was significantly associated with the occurrence of other microorganisms, such as soil nematodes, bacteria and yeasts. The presence of mites in their ears may increase the dust-bathing behavior of elephants which, if confirmed, represents a further paradigmatic example of a parasitic infestation affecting animal behavior. Graphical Abstract

In Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus causes significant calf mortality. Coagulation testing may aid veterinarians in early identification and management of hemostatic disorders. This study sought to establish reference intervals for select coagulation and platelet values. Blood was collected from clinically healthy Asian elephants (n = 63) in juvenile (≤15 yr old, n = 9), adult (>15 to ≤50 yr old, n = 41), and geriatric (>50 yr old, n = 13) age classes at seven institutions in Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand. Activated clotting time (ACT) was immediately assessed with a handheld analyzer, whereas remaining blood was stored at 5°C in sodium citrate and potassium EDTA collection tubes and transported to a central laboratory. Coagulation values were assessed on an automated blood coagulation analyzer, and platelet values were assessed on a hematology analyzer. Reference intervals were established for ACT, prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time, thrombin time, fibrinogen, platelet count, mean platelet volume, platelet distribution width, and plateletcrit according to the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology guidelines. No significant differences were observed for any value when comparing sex and time to centrifugation. Plasma fibrinogen (P = 0.002) and platelets (P = 0.003) varied significantly by age class, with adults displaying the highest fibrinogen concentrations and geriatric individuals displaying the lowest platelet counts. The ACT kaolin cartridges resulted in high success rates (84.3% feasibility) compared with celite cartridges (4.8% feasibility). Further studies are warranted to stratify reference intervals in accordance with age class trends.

Local anesthetics provide analgesia and can be incorporated into multimodal anesthetic protocols. They work by blocking the voltage-dependent sodium ion channels along neurons that mediate nociception. Systemically, these drugs can be cardiotoxic in a dose-dependent manner. Lidocaine and bupivacaine are the most commonly used local anesthetics and their use has been reported in all classes of vertebrates. Despite anecdotal reports to the contrary, zoologic companion animals are unlikely to be more susceptible to the cardiotoxic effects of local anesthetics than domestic small animals. Local anesthetics can be clinically useful for analgesia and anesthesia in zoologic companion animal practice.

This retrospective study used data obtained from medical records of 530 stranded free-ranging harbor ( Phoca vitulina ), grey ( Halichoerus grypus ), harp ( Pagophilus groenlandicus ), and hooded seals ( Cystophora cristata ) presented to the Marine Mammal Stranding Center in Brigantine, New Jersey from January 1998 through December 2016. The objective was to identify hematological and plasma biochemical parameters of seals at time of presentation that were associated with successful rehabilitation and with duration of hospitalization using univariate and multivariate logistic regressions. At presentation, animals that subsequently survived rehabilitation had greater alkaline phosphatase activity and absolute lymphocyte and total calcium concentrations and lower blood urea nitrogen, sodium, chloride, phosphorus, and total bilirubin concentrations and lower aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase activities than animals that eventually died or were euthanized while under care. Results suggest that young, actively growing animals are more likely to survive rehabilitation and that bloodwork consistent with dehydration, systemic disease, and exhaustion are negative prognostic indicators. These results provide prognostic indicators that may aid clinical decision-making for seals presented for rehabilitation.

Angiostrongylus cantonensis is a zoonotic parasitic helminth that normally resides in the pulmonary arteries and the right ventricle of rats (Rattus sp.), the definitive host, where it causes little disease. Humans, dogs, opossums, and various zoo animals are "accidental" hosts. Here we report verminous meningoencephalomyelitis caused by A. cantonensis in a 9-mo-old male red kangaroo (Macropus rufus). The kangaroo was first presented lethargic, recumbent, and hypothermic, with severe muscle wasting. Within 3 wk, he progressed to non-ambulatory paraparesis and died. Gross examination revealed multifocal areas of dark-brown discoloration, malacia, and cavitation in the brain and the spinal cord. Histologically, there were several sections of nematodes surrounded by extensive areas of rarefaction, hemorrhage, spongiosis, neuronal necrosis, and gliosis. Based on size, morphology, and organ location, the nematodes were identified as subadult males and females. Interestingly, an eosinophilic response was largely absent, and the inflammatory response was minimal. A. cantonensis infection had not been reported previously in a red kangaroo in Louisiana or Mississippi, to our knowledge. Our case reaffirms the widespread presence of the helminth in the southeastern United States and indicates that A. cantonensis should be considered as a differential in macropods with neurologic clinical signs in regions where A. cantonensis is now endemic.

Amphibians commonly are managed under human care for research, education, conservation, and companionship and frequently are in need of sedation, anesthesia, or end-of-life care involving euthanasia. Objective investigation of sedative and anesthetic protocols in these taxa still is in its infancy, but knowledge of current best practices is paramount to appropriate care. Tricaine methanesulfonate delivered via immersion (bath) is the most common anesthetic agent in amphibians, but several other effective techniques have been identified. This summary provides a comprehensive review of the current evidence-based literature regarding amphibian sedative, anesthetic, and euthanasia techniques.

Cardiac troponin I (cTnI) is specific to myocardial tissue, highly conserved across taxa, and a reliable indicator of myocardial disease in human and veterinary medicine. Biomarkers, like cTnI, may be useful for cardiac evaluation of elephants because the application of other modalities is complicated by the size of the animal. The goal of this study was to establish observed ranges for plasma cTnI in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) measured by two point-of-care analyzers. Blood was collected from captive juvenile (≤15 yr; n = 9), adult (16-50 yr; n = 42), and geriatric (>50 yr; n = 16) elephants. Following centrifugation, heparinized plasma was stored at 5°C prior to and in between analyses on iSTAT (Abbott Point of Care Inc, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA) and HUBI-QUANpro (Humiasis Co, Ltd, Anyang-si 14042, South Korea) analyzers. With the exception of two results, plasma concentrations of cTnI were below the limit of quantification (LOQ < 0.05 ng/ml) for the HUBI-QUANpro (n = 64), which prohibited comparison between the two analyzers. Observed ranges were determined for plasma cTnI concentrations reported by the iSTAT for the entire population sampled (n = 58; mean 0.011 ng/ml; SD ± 0.013 ng/ml; range 0.00-0.07 ng/ml; 95% CI 0.008-0.015 ng/ml; median 0.01 ng/ml) and with outliers excluded (n = 50; mean 0.007 ng/ml; SD ± 0.007 ng/ml; range 0.00-0.02 ng/ml; 95% CI 0.005-0.009 ng/ml; median 0.01 ng/ml). No significant differences were observed between age classes (P = 0.70) or sexes (P = 0.34). Higher cTnI concentrations were significantly correlated with increasing age (Pearson's r = 0.426; P = 0.002). Future studies are warranted to investigate the diagnostic potential of plasma cTnI in Asian elephants.

OBJECTIVE:To evaluate the agreement between 3 point-of-care (POC) devices and a reference laboratory for measuring β-hydroxybutyrate (β-HB) concentration in African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) whole blood (WB) and plasma samples and the precision of each POC device for measuring β-HB concentration in plasma samples.ANIMALS:48 healthy African penguins.PROCEDURES:Blood was obtained from the right jugular vein of each penguin, and β-HB concentration was measured on each POC device using fresh WB and heparinized plasma and at the reference laboratory using plasma. β-HB concentration was measured in plasma on each POC device.RESULTS:All devices overestimated serum β-HB concentrations on average by 0.46 mM relative to the reference laboratory. WB samples had less error than plasma for meters A and C. Meter A had the lowest total error observed (26.4%) and the lowest mean difference (0.19 mmol/L) relative to the reference laboratory. Controlling for other factors, the magnitude of disagreement was not affected by sex, age, packed cell volume, or serum total solids concentration.CLINICAL RELEVANCE:WB, not plasma, should be used for measurement of β-HB concentration on the POC meters tested. Meter A showed good correlation with the reference laboratory for WB. The use of POC devices for the measurement of β-HB concentration may be acceptable when laboratory analyzers are not available. Further research is needed for clinical application and the diagnostic value of POC meters compared with reference laboratories.

When reptiles are presented for emergencies, patient stabilization is the first priority as with other species. Diagnostic tools that provide instantaneous results can be valuable to triage patients, identify problems, devise treatment plans, and assess prognosis. Obtaining baseline data upon presentation also allows for monitoring the patient's progress and response to treatment over time. This chapter reviews the application of such diagnostic tools to the critical reptile patient.

Understanding marine animal stranding patterns can aid rehabilitation efforts and evaluations of ecosystem health. The goal of this retrospective study was to identify factors associated with outcome of marine animals presented to a rehabilitation facility in Brigantine, New Jersey, USA. Records of 4819 phocids, cetaceans, and sea turtles were reviewed. Taxa, age, sex, season, and outcome (natural death, euthanasia, transfer to another facility, and successful release) were recorded for each case. Binary logistic regression was employed to identify predictors associated with release, and a multivariate logistic regression model was developed to evaluate whether the association between taxa and chance of release persisted after adjustment for the other variables. Phocids were most likely to strand during winter. Phocids and sea turtles that stranded alive were more likely to be released than to die under care or be euthanized. Taxa, age, and season were all significantly associated with the probability of release. These results provide a reference for phocid, cetacean, and sea turtle stranding and rehabilitation in part of the mid-Atlantic region. Critical evaluation of wildlife rehabilitation is indicated to audit the success of efforts and to assess threats to free-ranging populations.