Individuals with autism and/or Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) face greater adversity, which is typically associated with negative life outcomes (e.g., depression), but potentially, adaptive strengths (e.g., resilience). Little is known about the types of adversity experienced by autistic/ADHD adults, the processes underlying this increased risk, and the subsequent impact of adversity. Further, almost nothing is known about whether and how strengths arise from adversity in neurodevelopmental conditions. Autistic/ADHD adults (N = 123), living in the UK or USA, reported their adverse life experiences, including the role of autism/ADHD, and any resulting strengths. Data were analysed using codebook thematic analysis. Overall, eight themes (11 subthemes) highlighted four factors underlying adversity (Cognitive, Social, Emotional, and Sensory), two major types of adverse experiences (Marginalisation and Mistreatment), and two long-term outcomes of adversity (Health Outcomes and Strength Outcomes). Autistic/ADHD individuals experience an array of adversities across settings (including schools, homes, and workplaces), in part due to autism/ADHD-associated cognitive, social, emotional, and sensory factors. Whilst there are negative consequences of adversity, we also highlight that adverse life experiences may confer strengths. These findings underscore the need for tailored interventions to mitigate the susceptibility to adversities and subsequently reduce the negative impact of adversities in autism/ADHD.

Background:Strength development in children across a range of psychiatric diagnoses may reduce needs for mental health, social, and functioning support over time. A strength-based adjunct to child and adolescent mental health may foster the developmental context most helpful for achieving desired outcomes with positive developmental cascading effects. Methods:We longitudinally examined changes across 5 years in the Child and Adolescent Needs and Strengths Assessment in 2- to 18-year-old children (N = 30,103) from a public mental health system. Results:First, children who began with a greater number of strengths consistently had fewer support needs, not only at entry but also at one, two, three, four, and five years later. Second, initial strengths appeared to have cumulative positive cascades with reduced support needs over time; each additional strength a child possessed at the beginning of service was associated with a progressively faster decrease in their support needs each subsequent year. Furthermore, developing more strengths during the service period also predicted lower support needs one, two, three, four, and five years later. Finally, the impact of developing strengths over time varied depending on the child's age. Developing more strengths was linked to an increasingly rapid reduction in support needs each year for 2- to 5-year-olds. In contrast, developing more strengths was linked to a progressively slower reduction in support needs each year for 11- to 15-year-olds. Conclusion:We provide empirical support suggesting both the clinical utility of strength-based behavioral health care and the value of strength development in relation to reduction in support needs as a transdiagnostic clinical dimension. In turn, positive developmental cascading effects during a sensitive period early in development suggest the importance of early intervention. Strength-based mental health classification and treatment systems can be balanced with a traditional mental health symptom focus to more broadly leverage individuals' abilities for adaptation.

Abstract Background Brief questionnaires help clinicians to identify people who may require in-depth assessment for Autism Spectrum Disorder (hereafter autism) and also facilitate research. However, many current questionnaires do not map onto the latest DSM-5 criteria for autism and were developed by researchers and/or clinicians, with limited input from autistic people. The Signposting Questionnaire for Autism (SQ-A) is a caregiver-report questionnaire for measuring autism signs in children, based on DSM-5 criteria. Here, we developed a revised lifespan version, the SQ-A-2, with input on wording from autistic adults. We tested the SQ-A-2 as a self-report measure in autistic and non-autistic adults, and assessed the impact of the adapted wording on both the psychometric properties and the acceptability of the measure. Methods The SQ-A, containing highly discriminating DSM-5 items from a valid clinical interview, was revised to form the 18-item SQ-A-2, with self- and informant-report options. Following input from a team of four autistic consultants and six autism professionals, item wording on the SQ-A-2 was adapted, thus forming Original and Adapted versions. Subsequently, a sample of autistic and non-autistic adults (N = 302), matched on age, sex, and general cognitive ability, completed both versions of the new SQ-A-2, as well as the widely-used 10-item Autism-Quotient (AQ-10). Autistic participants also rated their preferences for Original versus Adapted items, and provided qualitative responses for their reasoning. Results Overall, the self-report version of the SQ-A-2 demonstrated excellent internal reliability and convergent validity with the AQ-10, and autistic adults scored significantly higher than non-autistic adults. This group difference was greater for the Adapted compared to the Original version of the SQ-A-2, suggesting autistic consultation may facilitate the development of clinically-useful measures. Additionally, autistic participants preferred the wording of the Adapted versus Original items, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Limitations Our findings may not generalise to autistic people with intellectual disability. Ethnicity data was not collected. Conclusions The adapted version of the SQ-A-2 has the potential to be a valid, clinically useful questionnaire for measuring DSM-5 signs of autism across the lifespan. Our findings also highlight the utility of incorporating autistic input into measure development. Further psychometric testing of the SQ-A-2 in larger, more diverse samples, including the informant-report version, is now required.

Abstract Background Autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are common neurodevelopmental conditions that have both consistently been linked to internalising problems like anxiety and depression. However, the mechanisms that underpin these associations are unclear, especially in adults. To fill this research gap, we used a trait approach to investigate two theoretically relevant dispositional characteristics that may explain these relationships: intolerance of uncertainty (IU) and negative problem orientation (NPO). Methods We recruited a large ( N = 504), nationally representative sample of adults from the United Kingdom using Prolific. Participants provided basic demographic information and completed self-report measures of ADHD traits, autistic traits, internalising (depression and anxiety) symptoms, IU and NPO. Using parallel mediation analyses, we examined the roles of IU and NPO in the associations of ADHD and autistic traits with internalising symptoms. Results We found that, together, IU and NPO fully mediated the association between autistic traits and internalising symptoms whilst accounting for participants’ ADHD traits, age, sex and education level (standardised indirect effects: IU = 0.100, NPO = 0.139). Interestingly, these two dispositional characteristics only partially mediated the link between ADHD traits and internalising symptoms (standardised indirect effects: IU = 0.049, NPO = 0.128), suggesting that additional factors not captured by the mediation model may contribute to this positive relationship. Conclusions We conclude that a person’s perception of their capacity to tolerate uncertain or ambiguous situations and their views on their (in)ability to effectively solve problems in their day-to-day lives may underpin the strong association between autism and internalising problems and, to a lesser extent, between ADHD and internalising problems.

Autism and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are both linked to internalising problems (e.g., anxiety, depression) but their frequent co-occurrence makes these relationships difficult to disentangle. We, therefore, adopted a trait-based approach to examine the unique associations of autism and ADHD with internalising problem diagnoses in a large general population sample of adults from the United Kingdom and United States (N = 4996). We then assessed whether these associations would conceptually replicate in a clinical sub-sample (n = 292) using a case-control design. We found that, across the whole sample, ADHD traits were an overall stronger predictor of internalising problem diagnoses than autistic traits. The case-control analyses revealed that both autistic adults and adults with ADHD had greater odds of being diagnosed with anxiety, depression and an overall internalising problem (i.e., depression and/or anxiety) than neurotypical adults. Although the clinical groups did not significantly differ from each other in their associations with mental health diagnoses, having and ADHD diagnosis was more closely linked with depression while having an autism diagnosis was more closely linked with anxiety. We discuss potential psychological mechanisms underlying these findings and the implications for research and clinical practice concerning neurodevelopmental conditions.

Developmental prosopagnosia (DP) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by profound difficulties with face recognition. While there are no commonly agreed criteria for classifying individuals with DP, most researchers utilize self-report measures as an essential part. Here, we report the outcome from two teams who independently examined and tried to improve the most widely used tool in the field: the 20-item Prosopagnosia Index (PI20). The two teams arrived at a 13-item solution (PI13) and a 5-item solution (PI5), respectively. Joining forces, we tested both abbreviated versions and the original PI20 in a prospective investigation, with the aim of validating and comparing the tools. We found that PI5 and PI13 provide valid and reliable assessment of face recognition problems, and we recommend PI5 as a screening tool for face recognition problems with potential for use in clinical settings, while PI13 may be better suited for research on individual differences in face recognition.

BACKGROUND:Strength-based approaches are increasingly common in neurodevelopmental research, but the positive characteristics that may be features of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) remain underexplored. The extent to which people with ADHD recognize and use their personal strengths, and whether these play a role in their life outcomes, is also unknown. Tackling these gaps in the literature, we conducted the first study of self-reported strengths, strengths knowledge, and strengths use in ADHD. METHODS:Adults with (n = 200) and without (n = 200) ADHD were recruited online and rated their endorsement of 25 putative ADHD-related strengths. Participants also completed self-report measures assessing strengths knowledge, strengths use, subjective wellbeing, quality of life, and mental health. Using both Frequentist and Bayesian methods, we compared the groups and explored the associations of strengths knowledge and use with outcomes across both groups. RESULTS:The ADHD group endorsed 10 strengths more strongly than the non-ADHD group, including hyperfocus, humor, and creativity, but reported similar endorsement for 14 of the strengths. Adults with and without ADHD did not differ on their strengths knowledge and use but, in both groups, increased strengths knowledge and, to some extent, greater strengths use were associated with better wellbeing, improved quality of life, and fewer mental health symptoms. CONCLUSIONS:We conclude that, while adults with and without ADHD may have both similarities and differences in strengths, interventions that focus on enhancing people's strength knowledge and promoting the everyday use of their personal strengths could have universal applications to improve wellbeing in adulthood.

The 10-item Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ10) is frequently used to screen adults for high autistic traits in clinical practice and research. For the past decade, however, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence has recommended the use of a suboptimal >= 7 cutoff value, instead of the optimal >= 6 value specified during the AQ10's development. A comprehensive review into the use and reporting of the AQ10 cutoff suggests that this discrepancy has proliferated across the literature, with over 58% of reports citing a suboptimal (27.15%) or ambiguous (31.13%) cutoff value. After examining the use of the AQ10 cutoff in previous research, we drew on 25 published data sets (N = 13,692) to test how applying different AQ10 cutoffs can influence research. Our analyses suggest that a striking 36.80% of the participants classified as having high autistic traits using the >= 6 cutoff would be classified as having low autistic traits using the >= 7 cutoff. The >= 6 cutoff was also found to provide a better balance between the sensitivity and specificity of the AQ10 with respect to a clinical autism diagnosis. Most critically, our analyses showed that even a 1-point difference in the AQ10 cutoff-the error made in the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence guidelines-can meaningfully change both the statistical significance and the magnitude of autism-related effects. These findings demonstrate that the suboptimal use of the AQ10 cutoff can be consequential for research, and we discuss the urgent need to establish and apply appropriate autism screening cutoff values in the future.

Comorbidity between depression and cardiometabolic diseases is an emerging health concern, with childhood maltreatment as a major risk factor. These conditions are also linked to unhealthy lifestyle behaviours such as physical inactivity, smoking, and alcohol intake. However, the precise degree to which lifestyle behaviours moderate the risk between childhood maltreatment and comorbid depression and cardiometabolic disease is entirely unknown. We analysed clinical and self-reported data from four longitudinal studies (Npooled = 181,423; mean follow-up period of 5–18 years) to investigate the moderating effects of physical activity, smoking, and alcohol intake, on the association between retrospectively reported childhood maltreatment and i) depression, ii) cardiometabolic disease and iii) their comorbidity in older adults (mean age range of 47–66 years). Estimates of these moderation effects were derived using multinomial logistic regressions and then meta-analysed. No meaningful moderation effects were detected for any of the lifestyle behaviours on the association between childhood maltreatment and each health outcome. Physical activity was linked to lower odds of depression (OR [95

There is growing research interest in autism-related sex differences. Many behavioural and cognitive sex differences have been identified, with implications for research and clinical practice. Much of this research has relied on self-report autism measures, which are assumed to measure autistic traits equally in males and females. However, robust evidence for this assumption is lacking. Previous findings have not been replicated and no study has directly compared sex differences across multiple self-report autism measures in the same sample. To address this gap in research, a large sample of adults (N = 1000, 500 female) will complete a series of self-report autism measures. Following descriptive analyses, we will investigate the measurement invariance by sex of each measure. We thereby aim to improve understanding of which self-report autism measures, if any, are optimal for testing autism-related sex differences in future research.

Research has demonstrated a strong relationship between autism and gender dysphoria (GD) and that this relationship could be explained by obsessional interests which are characteristic of autism. However, these studies often measured obsessions using either single items which questions the reliability of the findings, or within autistic trait measures meaning the findings may simply index a more general relationship between autistic traits and GD. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the relationships between obsessional thoughts and traits of GD using a measure of obsessional thoughts alongside a measure of autistic traits, which was investigated in both non-clinical and clinical samples. A total of 145 non-clinical participants took part in Study 1 and all completed the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) as a measure of autistic traits, the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised (OCI-R) obsessional thoughts subscale as a measure of obsessional thoughts, and the Gender-Identity/Gender-Dysphoria Questionnaire (GIDYQ) to measure traits of GD. For Study 2, a total of 226 participants took part in Study 2 and all completed the same measures as in Study 1. They included participants diagnosed with GD (N = 49), autism (N = 65), OCD (N = 46) and controls with no diagnosis (N = 66). The hierarchical linear regression for Study 1 showed that both total AQ and OCI-R obsessional thoughts scores were uniquely associated with GIDYQ scores, with no interaction effect between the scores. The results for Study 2, from a hierarchical linear regression, once again found that obsessional thoughts and autistic traits were each uniquely associated with GIDYQ scores, but not their interaction. The GD and autistic groups both reported significantly greater traits of GD than the OCD and control groups, with the GD group reporting higher scores than the autistic group. Participants self-reported their diagnoses for Study 2, but diagnostic tests to verify these were not administered. Traits of GD were also measured at a single point in time, despite such traits being transient and continuous. The results show both obsessional thoughts and autistic traits are uniquely associated with GD, and that autistic people experience greater traits of GD than other clinical groups.

Across research studies, autistic traits have consistently been found to predict the quality of life (QoL) of autistic adults. However, our understanding of their exact role remains limited, as autistic traits are typically examined as a unitary construct, with their multidimensional nature being largely overlooked. The present study examined the relative contribution of specific autistic trait domains – social anxiety, mentalising difficulties, and sensory reactivity – to QoL in autistic adults. Participants ( N = 300) completed clinically relevant measures of their autistic traits (i.e., RAADS-14) and QoL (i.e., WHOQOL-BREF and ASQoL), and provided socio-demographic details. Results showed that the consistent presence of social anxiety and mentalising difficulties across development, but not sensory reactivity, significantly predicted poorer QoL, even after accounting for one another and potential confounders. Comparing their relative importance, social anxiety emerged as the most dominant predictor of QoL amongst all variables, followed by mentalising difficulties. These findings provide evidence for the divergent contributions of autistic trait domains to QoL, adding nuance to our understanding of factors relating to autistic adults’ QoL. Overall, this study underscores the importance of considering individual differences in autistic trait profiles when designing individualised support programmes, such as prioritising attention to the presence of social anxiety and mentalising difficulties, to enhance the QoL of autistic adults. Lay Abstract Research consistently shows that autistic adults with more autistic traits generally experience poorer quality of life (QoL). However, our understanding of how they exactly link remains limited. This is because overall autistic trait scores are typically examined, even though autistic traits encompass different types of characteristics (e.g., social and non-social). Specifically, it is yet to be determined which particular autistic traits contribute most to QoL differences among autistic adults. To address this question, the present study examined the relative contributions of three specific domains of autistic traits – social anxiety, mentalising difficulties, and sensory reactivity – to QoL in 300 autistic adults, using self-report questionnaires. We found that the extent to which the three domains contributed to QoL differed. The consistent presence of social anxiety and mentalising difficulties across development, but not sensory reactivity, significantly predicted poorer QoL. Further to this, the presence of social anxiety, followed by mentalising difficulties, were the most important predictors of poorer QoL compared to all other variables, including being male, not being in a relationship, and having one or more co-occurring mental health conditions. These findings suggest that individual differences in specific autistic trait domains should be particularly attended to in the design of more tailored, personalised support programmes, given their important influence on one's satisfaction with life. Overall, this study demonstrates that it would be useful to maximise the clinical use of autistic trait measures, such as moving beyond the focus on overall scores, with an aim to effectively enhance the QoL of autistic adults.

Abstract Background Brief questionnaires that comprehensively capture key restricted and repetitive behaviours (RRBs) across different informants have potential to support autism diagnostic services. We tested the psychometric properties of the 20-item Repetitive Behaviours Questionnaire-3 (RBQ-3), a questionnaire that includes self-report and informant-report versions enabling use across the lifespan. Method In Study 1, adults referred to a specialised adult autism diagnostic service (N = 110) completed the RBQ-3 self-report version, and a relative or long-term friend completed the RBQ-3 informant-report version. Clinicians completed the abbreviated version of the Diagnostic Interview for Social and Communication Disorders (DISCO-Abbreviated) with the same adults as part of the diagnostic process. For half of the assessments, clinicians were blind to the RBQ-3 ratings. We tested internal consistency, cross-informant reliability and convergent validity of the RBQ-3. In Study 2, a follow-up online study with autistic (N = 151) and non-autistic (N = 151) adults, we further tested internal consistency of the RBQ-3 self-report version. We also tested group differences and response patterns in this sample. Results Study 1 showed good to excellent internal consistency for both self- and informant-report versions of the RBQ-3 (total score, α = 0.90, ω = 0.90, subscales, α = 0.76-0.89, ω = 0.77-0.88). Study 1 also showed cross-informant reliability as the RBQ-3 self-report scores significantly correlated with RBQ-3 informant-report scores for the total score (rs = 0.71) and subscales (rs= 0.69-0.72). Convergent validity was found for both self and informant versions of the RBQ-3, which significantly correlated with DISCO-Abbreviated RRB domain scores (rs = 0.45-0.54). Moreover, the RBQ-3 scores showed significantly weaker association with DISCO -Abbreviated scores for the Social Communication domain, demonstrating divergent validity. Importantly, these patterns of validity were found even when clinicians were blind to RBQ-3 items. In Study 2, for both autistic and non-autistic groups, internal consistency was found for the total score (α = 0.82-0.89, ω = 0.81-0.81) and for subscales (α = 0.68-0.85, ω = 0.69-0.85). A group difference was found between groups. Limitations Due to the characteristics and scope of the specialist autism diagnostic service, further testing is needed to include representative samples of age (including children) and intellectual ability, and those with a non-autistic diagnostic outcome. Conclusions The RBQ-3 is a questionnaire of RRBs that can be used across the lifespan. The current study tested its psychometric properties with autistic adults without intellectual disability and supported its utility for both clinical diagnostic and research settings.

Improving our understanding of autism, ADHD, dyslexia and other neurodevelopmental conditions requires collaborations between genetics, psychiatry, the social sciences and other fields of research.

Background: The lack of sound measures to assess mentalising in Arabic-speaking adults is a significant gap that can substantially constrain understanding of the expression and difficulties in the mentalising processes across the lifespan in the Arab world, and of the cross-cultural. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the psychometric properties of an Arabic translation of the FIMI in a multi-national sample of non-clinical adults. Methods: A sample of 8,408 adults (74.5% females, mean age 24.70 ± 8.44 years) from the general population of twelve Arab countries was surveyed to examine the psychometric properties of the Arabic FIMI. Results: CFA indicated that fit of the one-factor model of FIMI scores was excellent: RMSEA = .035 (90% CI .023, .048), SRMR = .012, CFI = .996, TLI = .989, and had adequate internal consistency reliability (ω = .68; α = .65). Indices suggested that configural, metric, and scalar invariance was supported across sex and country groups. Finally, correlational analyses provided support for construct validity of the Arabic-language version of the FIMI, by showing significant positive correlations between mentalising and self-reported autistic traits scores. Conclusion: Findings suggest that the Arabic FIMI is valid, reliable ad suitable for use among Arabic-speaking adults. The scale may raise awareness among clinicians and researchers of the possibilities to easily and accurately assess mentalising in order to enable the development, testing and monitoring of tailored Mentalising-based treatments aimed at addressing impaired mentalising and managing a range of mental disorders in Arab settings.

ObjectiveWe investigated the relationship between personal relative deprivation (PRD)-resentment from the belief that one is worse off than people who are similar to oneself-and locus of control.BackgroundResearch has yet to comprehensively investigate whether PRD is associated with a tendency to favor external (vs. internal) explanations for self- and other-relevant outcomes.MethodEight studies (Ntotal = 6729) employed cross-sectional, experimental, and (micro)longitudinal designs and used established trait and state measures of PRD and loci of control.ResultsParticipants higher in PRD adopted more external (vs. internal) explanations for others' outcomes while controlling for socio-demographics (e.g., socioeconomic status; Studies 1-4). This relationship was mediated by a lowered sense of personal control (Study 1) and evident in a cross-national sample of participants in Asia (Study 2). PRD is more robustly associated with external than internal explanations for self and other-relevant outcomes (Studies 5-8), and within-person changes in PRD are positively associated with within-person changes in external explanations (month-to-month and day-to-day; Studies 7-8).ConclusionsPRD is positively associated with external locus of control independent of socioeconomic status, within and between people, and across cultures. This research highlights the implications of PRD for people's construal of the causal forces that govern their lives.

The overlap between Autism and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is widely observed in clinical settings, with growing interest in their co-occurrence in neurodiversity research. Until relatively recently, however, concurrent diagnoses of Autism and ADHD were not possible. This has limited the scope for large-scale research on their crosscondition associations, further stymied by a dearth of open science practices in the neurodiversity field. Additionally, almost all previous research linking Autism and ADHD has focused on children and adolescents, despite them being lifelong conditions. Tackling these limitations in previous research, 5504 adults - including a nationally representative sample of the UK (Study 1; n = 504) and a large pre-registered study (Study 2; n = 5000)completed well-established self-report measures of Autism and ADHD traits. A series of network analyses unpacked the associations between Autism and ADHD at the individual trait level. Low inter-item connectivity was consistently found between conditions, supporting the distinction between Autism and ADHD as separable constructs. Subjective social enjoyment and hyperactivity-impulsivity traits were most condition-specific to Autism and ADHD, respectively. Traits related to attention control showed the greatest Bridge Expected Influence across conditions, revealing a potential transdiagnostic process underlying the overlap between Autism and ADHD. To investigate this further at the cognitive level, participants completed a large, well-powered, and pre-registered study measuring the relative contributions of Autism and ADHD traits to attention control (Study 3; n = 500). We detected age- and sex-related effects, however, attention control did not account for the covariance between Autism and ADHD traits. We situate our findings and discuss future directions in the cognitive science of Autism, ADHD, and neurodiversity, noting how our open datasets may be used in future research. (c) 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Work on the "double empathy problem" (DEP) is rapidly growing in academic and applied settings (e.g., clinical practice). It is most popular in research on conditions, like autism, which are characterized by social cognitive difficulties. Drawing from this literature, we propose that, while research on the DEP has the potential to improve understanding of both typical and atypical social processes, it represents a striking example of a weak derivation chain in psychological science. The DEP is poorly conceptualized, and we find that it is being conflated with many other constructs (i.e., reflecting the "jingle-jangle" fallacy). We provide examples to show how this underlies serious problems with translating theoretical claims into empirical predictions and evidence. To start tackling these problems, we propose that DEP research needs reconsideration, particularly through a better synthesis with the cognitive neuroscience literature on social interaction. Overall, we argue for a strengthening of the derivation chain pertaining to the DEP, toward more robust research on (a)typical social cognition. Until then, we caution against the translation of DEP research into applied settings.

Facial expression perception is influenced by body posture, with perception biased toward the body emotion. Previous research has suggested that the magnitude of this biasing influence of body posture is driven by individual differences in the precision of facial expression representations underlying discrimination abilities, where lower precision leads to a greater influence of body posture. It is unclear however whether similar mechanisms might drive the influence of contextual cues in Autism, which is often characterised by reduced facial expression discrimination abilities. Here, we addressed this question by using online psychophysical methods to determine the precision of isolated face and body expression representations of anger and disgust, and the influence of body on facial expression perception, in autistic and non-autistic adults. Both groups showed a strong influence of body context on facial expression perception, but this influence was larger in the autistic group, mirroring their lower overall precision of facial expression representations relative to non-autistic individuals. Crucially, the magnitude of the biasing influence of body posture in both groups was related to the precision of individuals’ facial expression representations. The results suggest that similar principles govern the integration of facial expression and body posture information in both autistic and non-autistic individuals.