We introduce the AusTraits database - a compilation of values of plant traits for taxa in the Australian flora (hereafter AusTraits). AusTraits synthesises data on 448 traits across 28,640 taxa from field campaigns, published literature, taxonomic monographs, and individual taxon descriptions. Traits vary in scope from physiological measures of performance (e.g. photosynthetic gas exchange, water-use efficiency) to morphological attributes (e.g. leaf area, seed mass, plant height) which link to aspects of ecological variation. AusTraits contains curated and harmonised individual- and species-level measurements coupled to, where available, contextual information on site properties and experimental conditions. This article provides information on version 3.0.2 of AusTraits which contains data for 997,808 trait-by-taxon combinations. We envision AusTraits as an ongoing collaborative initiative for easily archiving and sharing trait data, which also provides a template for other national or regional initiatives globally to fill persistent gaps in trait knowledge.

We introduce the AusTraits database - a compilation of measurements of plant traits for taxa in the Australian flora (hereafter AusTraits). AusTraits synthesises data on 375 traits across 29230 taxa from field campaigns, published literature, taxonomic monographs, and individual taxa descriptions. Traits vary in scope from physiological measures of performance (e.g. photosynthetic gas exchange, water-use efficiency) to morphological parameters (e.g. leaf area, seed mass, plant height) which link to aspects of ecological variation. AusTraits contains curated and harmonised individual-, species- and genus-level observations coupled to, where available, contextual information on site properties. This data descriptor provides information on version 2.1.0 of AusTraits which contains data for 937243 trait-by-taxa combinations. We envision AusTraits as an ongoing collaborative initiative for easily archiving and sharing trait data to increase our collective understanding of the Australian flora. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

Elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide (eCO(2)) often enhances rates of photosynthesis leading to increased productivity in trees. In their native habitats in Australia, eucalypts display considerable phenotypic plasticity in response to changes in environmental conditions. Little is known whether this plasticity can be harnessed effectively under future atmospheric eCO(2)conditions and be used to identify provenances with superior growth. Here, we report two experiments that assessed the physiological and growth responses ofEucalyptus grandis-one of the world's most important hardwood plantation species-to eCO(2). We used 11 provenances from contrasting climates. Our selection was based on site-specific information of long-term temperature and water availability. In Experiment 1, four provenances exhibited significant variation in light-saturated photosynthetic rates (A(sat)), stomatal conductance (g(s)), and concentrations of non-structural carbohydrates in leaves, stems and roots when grown under ambient CO2(aCO(2)). Biomass of leaves, stems and roots varied significantly and were negatively correlated with mean annual temperature (MAT) at seed origin, indicating that provenances from cooler, wetter climates generally produced greater biomass. Yet, stem growth of these provenances was not stimulated by eCO(2). Given the vast environmental gradient covered by provenances ofE. grandis, we expanded the selection from four to nine provenances in Experiment 2. This allowed us to validate results from Experiment 1 with its small selection and detailed measurements of various physiological parameters by focusing on growth responses to eCO(2)across a wider environmental gradient in Experiment 2. In Experiment 2, nine provenances also exhibited intraspecific differences in growth, but these were not related to climate of origin, and eCO(2)had little effect on growth traits. Growth responses under eCO(2)varied widely across provenances in both experiments, confirming phenotypic plasticity inE. grandis, though responses were not systematically correlated with climate of origin. These results indicate that selection of provenances for improved stem growth ofE. grandisunder future eCO(2)cannot be based solely on climate of origin, as is common practice for other planted tree species.

Increased variability in growing season climates continues to threaten the growth and yields of many crops. The impacts of individual climate stress conditions on crops has been documented frequently, yet how crops respond to multiple abiotic stress components is less well understood. Here, we report on the main and interactive effects of growth temperature, water deficit and a heatwave on leaf physiology and biomass production of cotton plants (Gossypium hirsutum L.). Plants were raised under two day/night growth temperature regimes (28/18 degrees C and 32/ 22 degrees C) and their corresponding nocturnal warming (+4 degrees C) scenarios (i.e. 28/22 degrees C and 32/26 degrees C). Following the emergence of the first square (flower bud), plants were subjected to two water treatments (well-watered and water deficit) until the beginning of the flowering stage, and then half of the plants in all temperature treatments were exposed to a 5-day heatwave treatment (40/26 degrees C). We found that elevated growth temperature increased growth rate (as defined by plant height) and leaf-level carbon gain, but decreased total aboveground biomass. Water deficit stress decreased leaf level carbon gain and biomass, but these impacts were generally less pronounced. Nocturnal warming moderately decreased leaf carbon gain for plants grown under the cool temperature regime (i.e. 28/18 degrees C), but not the warm temperature regime (i.e. 32/22 degrees C), and its impacts on biomass were also thermal regime specific. In contrast, leaf carbon gain was promoted by the heatwave under the cool daytime temperature treatment, but not the warm daytime temperature treatment. However, total aboveground biomass was less affected by the heatwave due to high resilience of gas exchange, although there was decreased fruit biomass. Overall, both shortand long-term increases in daytime temperature decreased cotton fruit biomass, while nocturnal warming had limited capacity to buffer that impact. Moderate soil water deficit will not strongly reduce carbon gain and growth. This study adds to the knowledge regarding the response of cotton plants to climate change and underscores the complexity of plant response to multiple environmental factors.

Elevated CO2 and temperature are expected to result in drought stress with increased intensity and frequency, yet our understanding of subsequent plant response is generally limited. The objective of this study was to investigate the impacts of elevated CO2 and temperature on physiological traits affecting drought tolerance of cotton plants (Gossypium hirsuarm). We grew cotton plants in the glasshouse under two CO2 treatments (C-a: 420 ppm; C-e: 640 ppm) and two temperature treatments (T-a: 32/24 degrees C; day/night; T-e : 36/28 degrees C; day/night) with adequate irrigation and fertilization. Plant allometry, leaf gas exchange and a suite of hydraulic characteristics (xylem resistance to drought-induced embolism in the leaf and stem, leaf tolerance to dehydration-induced loss of rehydration capacity, and water transport capacity of stem) were examined. Xylem anatomical traits of the leaf and stem were also examined to elucidate the structural basis for potential physiological adjustments. C-e increased canopy leaf area and decreased leaf level water loss at T-a, and decreased stomatal conductance and transpiration at both temperatures. Moreover, C-e significantly increased stem conductivity at T-a, but xylem tissue was less resistant to drought induced embolism. T-e altered the pattern of xylem conductivity and embolism resistance response to CO2, with the stem less hydraulically conductive while the xylem was more tolerant to embolism under C-e. The variation of stem conductivity and embolism resistance of the stem across CO2 and temperature treatments was likely to be partially explained by xylem anatomy. Overall, CO2 and temperature had interactive effects on traits associated with water relations of cotton, such that elevated CO2 compromised drought tolerance under ambient temperature, but these negative impacts were partially mitigated by elevated temperature.

Water relations have been well documented in tree species, but relatively little is known about the hydraulic characteristics of crops. Here, we report on the hydraulic strategy of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). Leaf gas exchange and in vivo embolism formation were monitored simultaneously on plants that were dried down in situ under controlled environment conditions, and xylem vulnerability to embolism of leaves, stems and roots was measured using intact plants. Water potential inducing 50% embolised vessels (P-50) in leaves was significantly higher (less negative) than P-50 of stems and roots, suggesting that leaves were the most vulnerable organ to embolism. Furthermore, the water potential generating stomatal closure (P-gs) was higher than required to generate embolism formation, and complete stomatal closure always preceded the onset of embolism with declining soil water content. Although protracted drought resulted in massive leaf shedding, stem embolism remained minimal even after 90% leaf area was lost. Overall, cotton maintained hydraulic integrity during long-term drought stress through early stomatal closure and leaf shedding, thus exhibiting a drought avoidance strategy. Given that water potentials triggering xylem embolism are uncommon under field conditions, cotton is unlikely to experience hydraulic dysfunction except under extreme climates. Results of this study provide physiological evidence for drought resistance in cotton with regard to hydraulics, and may provide guidance in developing irrigation schedules during periods of water shortage.

Intraspecific variation in biomass production responses to elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide (eCO2) could influence tree species' ecological and evolutionary responses to climate change. However, the physiological mechanisms underlying genotypic variation in responsiveness to eCO2 remain poorly understood. In this study, we grew 17 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. subsp. camaldulensis genotypes (representing provenances from four different climates) under ambient atmospheric CO2 and eCO2. We tested whether genotype leaf-scale photosynthetic and whole-tree carbon (C) allocation responses to eCO2 were predictive of genotype biomass production responses to eCO2. Averaged across genotypes, growth at eCO2 increased in situ leaf net photosynthesis (Anet) (29%) and leaf starch concentrations (37%). Growth at eCO2 reduced the maximum carboxylation capacity of Rubisco (-4%) and leaf nitrogen per unit area (Narea, -6%), but Narea calculated on a total non-structural carbohydrate-free basis was similar between treatments. Growth at eCO2 also increased biomass production and altered C allocation by reducing leaf area ratio (-11%) and stem mass fraction (SMF, -9%), and increasing leaf mass area (18%) and leaf mass fraction (5%). Overall, we found few significant CO2 × provenance or CO2 × genotype (within provenance) interactions. However, genotypes that showed the largest increases in total dry mass at eCO2 had larger increases in root mass fraction (with larger decreases in SMF) and photosynthetic nitrogen-use efficiency (PNUE) with CO2 enrichment. These results indicate that genetic differences in PNUE and carbon sink utilization (in roots) are both important predictors of tree productivity responsiveness to eCO2.

Nocturnal transpiration constitutes a significant yet poorly understood component of the global water cycle. Modeling nocturnal transpiration has been complicated by recent findings showing that stomata respond differently to environmental drivers over day- vs. night-time periods. Here, we propose that nocturnal stomatal conductance depends on antecedent daytime conditions. We tested this hypothesis across six genotypes of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. growing under different CO2 concentrations (ambient vs. elevated) and exposed to contrasting temperatures (ambient vs. heat wave) for four days prior to the night of measurements, when all plants experienced ambient temperature conditions. We observed significant effects after the heat wave that led to 36% reductions in nocturnal stomatal conductance. The response was partly driven by changes in daytime stomatal behavior but additional factors may have come into play. We also observed significant differences in response to the heat wave across genotypes, likely driven by local adaptation to their climate of origin, but CO2 played no effect. Stomatal models may need to incorporate the role of antecedent effects to improve projections particularly after drastic changes in the environment such as heat waves.

Despite a wealth of eco-physiological assessments of plant response to extreme drought, few studies have addressed the interactive effects of global change factors on traits driving mortality. To understand the interaction between hydraulic and carbon metabolic traits influencing tree mortality, which may be independently influenced by atmospheric [CO2] and temperature, we grew Eucalyptus sideroxylon A. Cunn. ex Woolls from seed in a full-factorial [CO2] (280, 400 and 640 μmol mol-1, Cp, Ca and Ce, respectively) and temperature (ambient and ambient +4 °C, Ta and Te, respectively) experiment. Prior to drought, growth across treatment combinations resulted in significant variation in physiological and morphological traits, including photosynthesis (Asat), respiration (Rd), stomatal conductance, carbohydrate storage, biomass and leaf area (LA). Ce increased Asat, LA and leaf carbohydrate concentration compared with Ca, while Cp generated the opposite response; Te reduced Rd. However, upon imposition of drought, Te hastened mortality (9 days sooner compared with Ta), while Ce significantly exacerbated drought stress when combined with Te. Across treatments, earlier time-to-mortality was mainly associated with lower (more negative) leaf water potential (Ψl) during the initial drought phase, along with higher water loss across the first 3 weeks of water limitation. Among many variables, Ψl was more important than carbon status in predicting time-to-mortality across treatments, yet leaf starch was associated with residual variation within treatments. These results highlight the need to carefully consider the integration, interaction and hierarchy of traits contributing to mortality, along with their responses to environmental drivers. Both morphological traits, which influence soil resource extraction, and physiological traits, which affect water-for-carbon exchange to the atmosphere, must be considered to adequately predict plant response to drought. Researchers have struggled with assessing the relative importance of hydraulic and carbon metabolic traits in determining mortality, yet an integrated trait, time-dependent framework provides considerable insight into the risk of death from drought for trees.

Alterations in climate factors such as rising CO2 concentration ([CO2]), warming and reduced precipitation may have significant impacts on plant physiology and growth. This research investigated the interactive effects of elevated [CO2], warming and soil water deficit on biomass production, leaf-level physiological responses and whole-plant water use efficiency (WUEP) in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). Cotton was grown in the glasshouse under two [CO2] treatments (CA, 400µLL-1; CE, 640µLL-1) and two temperature treatments (TA, 28°C:17°C day:night; TE, 32°C:21°C day:night). Plants were subjected to two progressive water deficit cycles, with a 5-day recovery period between the water deficit periods. CE increased vegetative biomass and photosynthetic rates, and decreased stomatal conductance in TA; however, these responses to CE were not evident under TE. CE increased whole-plant water loss under TA, but increased WUEp, whereas increased whole-plant water loss in TE decreased WUEp regardless of atmospheric [CO2]. CE may provide some positive growth and physiological benefits to cotton at TA if sufficient water is available but CE will not mitigate the negative effects of rising temperature on cotton growth and physiology in future environments.

Drought strongly influences terrestrial C cycling via its effects on plant H2O and CO2 exchange. However, the treatment of photosynthetic physiology under drought by many ecosystem and earth system models remains poorly constrained by data. We measured the drought response of four tree species and evaluated alternative model formulations for drought effects on photosynthesis (A). We implemented a series of soil drying and re wetting events (i.e. multiple droughts) with four contrasting tree species in large pots (75 L) placed in the field under rainout shelters. We measured leaf-level gas exchange, predawn and midday leaf water potential (Psi(pd) and Psi(md)), and leaf isotopic composition (delta C-13) and calculated discrimination relative to the atmosphere (Delta). We then evaluated eight modeling frameworks that simulate the effects of drought in different ways. With moderate reductions in volumetric soil water content (theta), all species reduced stomatal conductance (g(s)), leading to an equivalent increase in water use efficiency across species inferred from both leaf gas exchange and Delta, despite a small reduction in photosynthetic capacity. With severe reductions in theta, all species strongly reduced g(s) along with a coincident reduction in photosynthetic capacity, illustrating the joint importance of stomatal and non-stomatal limitations of photosynthesis under strong drought conditions. Simple empirical models as well as complex mechanistic model formulations were equally successful at capturing the measured variation in A and g(s), as long as the predictor variables were available from direct measurements (theta, Psi(pd), and Psi(md)). However, models based on leaf water potential face an additional challenge, as we found that Psi(pd) was substantially different from Psi(soll) predicted by standard approaches based on theta. Modeling frameworks that combine gas exchange and hydraulic traits have the advantage of mechanistic realism, but sacrificed parsimony without an improvement in predictive power in this comparison. Model choice depends on the desired balance between simple empiricism and mechanistic realism. We suggest that empirical models implementing stomatal and non-stomatal limitations based on theta are highly predictive simple models. Mechanistic models that incorporate hydraulic traits have excellent potential, but several challenges currently limit their widespread implementation.

Stressful episodic weather is likely to affect the C balance of trees as the climate changes, potentially altering survival. However, the role of elevated CO2 concentration ([CO2]) in tolerating off-season episodic extremes is not clear. We tested for interactive effects of elevated CO2 and springtime heat stress on photosynthesis for seven genotypes of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. var. camaldulensis, representing its widespread distribution across south-eastern Australia. We grew clonal material under glasshouse conditions of ambient (aCO2; 400 parts per million (ppm)) or elevated (eCO2; 640ppm) [CO2], and air temperatures of 25:17°C (day:night), and measured the electron transport rate in PSII (ETR), stomatal conductance to water vapour (gs) and net CO2 assimilation (A). Measurements were made before, during and after a four-day temperature excursion of 35:27°C. ETR and A were ~17% higher for plants grown in eCO2 than in aCO2. Photosynthesis remained stable for plants in eCO2 during the heatwave. Based on the effect size ratio (eCO2:aCO2), gs and ETR were temporarily affected more by the heatwave than A. A reduction in ETR in eCO2 was the only lasting effect of the heatwave. There were no significant differences among genotypes. Correlations between photosynthesis and climate of origin differed for plants grown in aCO2 compared with eCO2, suggesting potential complex and multiple control points on photosynthesis.

Changes in atmospheric [CO2], temperature and precipitation under projected climate change scenarios may have significant impacts on the physiology and yield of cotton. Understanding the implications of integrated environmental impacts on cotton is critical for developing cotton systems that are resilient to stresses induced by climate change. The objective of this study was to quantify the physiological and growth capacity of two cotton cultivars under current and future climate regimes. This experiment compared the early-season growth and physiological response of an older (DP16, released in the 1970s) and a modern (Sicot 71BRF, released in 2008) cotton cultivar grown in ambient and elevated atmospheric [CO2] (CA, 400µLL-1 and CE, 640µLL-1 respectively) and two temperature (TA, 28/17°C and TE, 32/21°C, day/night, respectively) treatments under well-watered conditions. CE increased biomass and photosynthetic rates compared with CA, and TE increased plant biomass. Although limited by the comparison of one older and one modern cultivar, our results suggest that substantial potential may exist to increase breeding selection of cotton cultivars that are responsive to both TE and CE.

The effects of elevated CO2 on the short-term temperature response of leaf dark respiration (R) remain uncertain for many forest tree species. Likewise, variation in leaf R among populations within tree species and potential interactive effects of elevated CO2 are poorly understood. We addressed these uncertainties by measuring the short-term temperature response of leaf R in 15 provenances of Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex Maiden from contrasting thermal environments grown under ambient [CO2] (aCO2; 400 µmol mol–1) and elevated [CO2] (640 µmol mol–1; eCO2). Leaf R per unit area (Rarea) measured across a range of temperatures was higher in trees grown in eCO2 and varied up to 104% among provenances. However, eCO2 increased leaf dry mass per unit area (LMA) by 21%, and when R was expressed on a mass basis (i.e. Rmass), it did not differ between CO2 treatments. Likewise, accounting for differences in LMA among provenances, Rmass did not differ among provenances. The temperature sensitivity of R (i.e. Q10) did not differ between CO2 treatments or among provenances. We conclude that eCO2 had no direct effect on the temperature response of R in E. grandis, and respiratory physiology was similar among provenances of E. grandis regardless of home-climate temperature conditions.

We present two comprehensive data sets that describe xylem vessel diameters and related sapwood traits for species of Eucalyptus from arid and semi-arid woodlands and forests in Australia. Between 2009 and 2014, sapwood of mature trees was sampled in south-western, south-eastern and eastern Australia. One additional species was sampled from tropical north-western Australia. The first data set describes samples collected from the basal stem section (130 cm above ground) of three individuals of 31 species of which eight species were replicated at sites that differed in climatic conditions. The second data set describes vessel characteristics of three trees from each of 10 species that were sampled at 8 m below the tree apex. The sampled trees of these 10 species are also part of the first data set. In total, we report diameters (D) for over 25 100 vessels, from 494 digital images taken from 117 trees. We also report vessel frequencies, void-to-wood ratios, sapwood densities and hydraulically weighted vessel diameters (Dh). Supporting data of the first data set include tree diameter at breast height (130 cm above ground), tree height, sample locations, and summary climate data. In this data set, diameter of individual vessels ranges from 10 to over 300 μm, and vessel frequency from 360 to 9070 vessels cm-2 . Wood density ranges from 0.47 to 0.96 g cm-3 . Void-to-wood ratio ranges from 6% to 27% and Dh ranges from 46 to 236 μm. Mean annual rainfall (P) at sample sites ranges from 246 to 2274 mm and FAO56 reference evaporation (E) from 777 to 2110 mm. The aridity index (E/P) ranges from 0.15 to 2.93 (dimensionless). Tree diameters range from 9 to 90 cm and tree heights range from 6 to 70 m. D and Dh in the second data set range from 11 to 271 and 68 to 205 μm, respectively. These datasets will make a valuable contribution to future continental-scale and global-scale studies of the relationship between xylem hydraulic architecture and climate. The data sets are unique in the sense that they are phylogenetically constrained, allowing in-depth assessment of plasticity of hydraulic attributes within a single tree genus.

Current theory presumes that natural selection on vascular traits is controlled by a trade-off between efficiency and safety of hydraulic architecture. Hence, traits linked to efficiency, such as vessel diameter, should show biogeographic patterns; but critical tests of these predictions are rare, largely owing to confounding effects of environment, tree size and phylogeny. Using wood sampled from a phylogenetically constrained set of 28 Eucalyptus species, collected from a wide gradient of aridity across Australia, we show that hydraulic architecture reflects adaptive radiation of this genus in response to variation in climate. With increasing aridity, vessel diameters narrow, their frequency increases with a distribution that becomes gradually positively skewed and sapwood density increases while the theoretical hydraulic conductivity declines. Differences in these hydraulic traits appear largely genotypic in origin rather than environmentally plastic. Data reported here reflect long-term adaptation of hydraulic architecture to water availability. Rapidly changing climates, on the other hand, present significant challenges to the ability of eucalypts to adapt their vasculature.

Summary Leaf economics and hydraulic traits strongly influence photosynthesis. While the level of coordination among these traits can differ between sets of species, leaf functional trait coordination within species remains poorly understood. Furthermore, elevated concentrations of atmospheric CO 2 commonly influence the expression of leaf photosynthetic, economics and hydraulic traits in contrasting ways, yet the effect of variable concentrations of atmospheric CO 2 on patterns of trait coordination within species remains largely untested. We examined the relationships among key leaf photosynthetic (e.g. net photosynthesis and photosynthetic biochemistry), economics and water‐use (e.g. leaf mass per unit area and stomatal conductance) and hydraulic traits (e.g. vein density) in 14 genotypes of Eucalyptus camaldulensis grown in ambient (aCO 2 ) and elevated (eCO 2 ) [ CO 2 ]. We examined the level of coordination among leaf traits in aCO 2 and then assessed whether growth in eCO 2 altered that coordination. We found that leaf traits related to photosynthetic capacity, economics and water‐use, and hydraulics were decoupled among genotypes grown in aCO 2 , yet strong relationships were generally observed among suites of traits within each ‘functional group’. Significant responses to growth in eCO 2 were observed for most leaf photosynthetic and economics and water‐use traits, with the magnitude and direction of the response varying among traits. In contrast, leaf hydraulics traits were unaffected by variable growth CO 2 . Despite this, growth in eCO 2 did not substantially alter patterns of leaf trait coordination observed in aCO 2 . These results suggest suites of leaf traits associated with photosynthetic capacity, economics and water‐use and hydraulics, respectively, can form independent axes of variation among genotypes of a single species, regardless of growth CO 2 . Although growth in eCO 2 did not substantially alter patterns of trait coordination, decoupling of leaf functional traits among genotypes may allow genetically distinct populations to produce novel combinations of traits that may be adaptive in response to changes in their local environment.

Non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) in plant tissue are frequently quantified to make inferences about plant responses to environmental conditions. Laboratories publishing estimates of NSC of woody plants use many different methods to evaluate NSC. We asked whether NSC estimates in the recent literature could be quantitatively compared among studies. We also asked whether any differences among laboratories were related to the extraction and quantification methods used to determine starch and sugar concentrations. These questions were addressed by sending sub-samples collected from five woody plant tissues, which varied in NSC content and chemical composition, to 29 laboratories. Each laboratory analyzed the samples with their laboratory-specific protocols, based on recent publications, to determine concentrations of soluble sugars, starch and their sum, total NSC. Laboratory estimates differed substantially for all samples. For example, estimates for Eucalyptus globulus leaves (EGL) varied from 23 to 116 (mean = 56) mg g(-1) for soluble sugars, 6-533 (mean = 94) mg g(-1) for starch and 53-649 (mean = 153) mg g(-1) for total NSC. Mixed model analysis of variance showed that much of the variability among laboratories was unrelated to the categories we used for extraction and quantification methods (method category R(2) = 0.05-0.12 for soluble sugars, 0.10-0.33 for starch and 0.01-0.09 for total NSC). For EGL, the difference between the highest and lowest least squares means for categories in the mixed model analysis was 33 mg g(-1) for total NSC, compared with the range of laboratory estimates of 596 mg g(-1). Laboratories were reasonably consistent in their ranks of estimates among tissues for starch (r = 0.41-0.91), but less so for total NSC (r = 0.45-0.84) and soluble sugars (r = 0.11-0.83). Our results show that NSC estimates for woody plant tissues cannot be compared among laboratories. The relative changes in NSC between treatments measured within a laboratory may be comparable within and between laboratories, especially for starch. To obtain comparable NSC estimates, we suggest that users can either adopt the reference method given in this publication, or report estimates for a portion of samples using the reference method, and report estimates for a standard reference material. Researchers interested in NSC estimates should work to identify and adopt standard methods.