Parent-child separation is a pressing global crisis that has profoundly affected child and family well-being. Early and prolonged parent-child separation (EPPCS) poses risks to child development, particularly during ages 0-6 for over six months, poses a potential threat to attachment and developmental continuity across childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Research and services often overlook the experiences of U.S.-born children who were transnationally separated from their immigrant parents at young ages and reunited with them in the United States around school age. There is an urgent need to understand their experiences (i.e., exposure to risk and protective factors), across multilevel contexts (family, school, community) during separation and reunification. The present study conducted one-on-one interviews with 24 separated-reunited parent-child dyads [N=48; n child=24, with 50% boys, Age Mean (SD) = 14.26 (1.85); n parents=24 with 23 mothers]. Results of thematic analysis showed that: (1) during separation, children faced risks like limited-educated caregivers, restricted parental interaction, and insufficient early care and education. Technology and social support helped maintain communication; and (2) Upon reunification, children experienced acculturation difficulties, disrupted attachment, and stress at school. However, some families exhibited resilience. Support from family, teachers, peers, community resources, and self-coping strategies proved beneficial. Results emphasize the need to reduce various risks and promote protective factors across multiple contexts, providing insights for policies, future research, and interventions and services that aim to enhance affected children’s adaptation during separation and reunification.

The present study aimed to understand the reasons for early and prolonged parent-child separation and its impacts among separated-reunited Chinese immigrant families. Chinese dual-earner immigrant parents, especially low-income families, are likely to send their newborns back to China to be raised by their extended families. Prior research has not yet sufficiently investigated the reasons for separation and how affected families perceive the benefits and costs, especially among those who have reunited years after separation. Based on one-on-one qualitative interviews (N = 48 in 24 parent-child dyads) and supplemental screening survey data (N = 142), we identified common reasons for separation, including involuntary reasons (e.g., financial difficulties and lack of child-rearing time) and voluntary reasons (e.g., building bonds with Chinese culture). In addition, we used thematic analysis for the 24 parent-child dyad interviews and explored the impact of early and prolonged parent-child separation (i.e., benefits and costs) perceived by the youth and their primary caregivers. Benefits of separation included improved financial and living situations and enhanced bonding with cultural origins. Costs they perceived included impaired relationships within nuclear families, substitute caregivers spoiling children, and introducing language barriers. These findings shed light on the development of policies and initiatives aiming to support Chinese immigrant families pre- and postseparation.

BACKGROUND:The present study examined the associations among ethnic identity, perceived discrimination and multiple indicators of positive youth development (PYD; i.e., intrapersonal-oriented competence, interpersonal-oriented competence, confidence, caring, character, family connection, peer connection, school and community connection, positive attitudes towards diversity and cultural pride) that were specifically identified among second-generation Chinese-American youth.METHODS:Participants were 196 second-generation Chinese-American youth (N girl = 93; M age = 14.56, SD age = 1.75) primarily from the greater Boston area in MA, United States. Multivariate regression models were estimated to examine the associations between ethnic identity, perceived discrimination, and each potential indicator of PYD, as well as the moderating role of ethnic identity, controlling for key demographics.RESULTS:(1) Ethnic identity was positively related to all PYD indicators, βs = .32 to .72, ps < .01; (2) perceived discrimination was negatively associated with all indicators of PYD (βs = -.15 to -.32, ps < .05), except for interpersonal-oriented competence and caring; and (3) ethnic identity significantly moderated the relationship between perceived discrimination and family connection (β = .23, p < .01).CONCLUSIONS:Findings indicate that whereas discrimination has potential negative effects on the positive development of second-generation Chinese-American youth, ethnic identity may be a key strength that should be considered in PYD promotion practices for these youth.

INTRODUCTION:Positive character is an integral component of positive youth development that relates to psychological well-being among adolescents, yet the literature has largely overlooked its within-group variation. This study examined the latent profiles of positive character and explored their variation in psychological well-being across four adolescent groups (i.e., migrant, left-behind, rural local, and urban local adolescents) within each profile. METHODS:A diverse sample of 15,895 adolescents from 10 provinces of China (Meanage = 13.16, SD = 2.53; 47.5% girls) completed a cross-sectional survey on positive character and psychological well-being in 2017. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was conducted based on four positive characters. We investigated the distribution of each positive character profile across subgroups, as well as if and how the psychological well-being varied across different adolescent groups within each profile. RESULTS:LPA revealed three subgroups, including "Thriving" (53.6%), "Moderate" (39.1%), and "Lagging" (7.4%) positive character profiles. The "Thriving" profile was more prevalent among the urban local (58.5%) and migrant (55.8%) adolescent groups, while the "Lagging" profile was most prevalent among the left-behind adolescent group (11.6%). Urban local and migrant adolescents tended to show better psychological well-being compared to rural local and left-behind adolescents, and the disparities were generally more pronounced under the "Thriving" profile as compared to the "Moderate" and "Lagging" profiles. CONCLUSIONS:Three positive character profiles were captured among four groups of Chinese adolescents varied in parental migration status and rural-urban residency. Tailored youth development programs are needed for different groups of adolescents varying in positive character profiles.

Left-behind children are likely to experience peer victimization, which can have detrimental consequences in their developmental outcomes. Yet, limited longitudinal research have examined peer victimization trajectories over time or the factors associated with left-behind children in China. The purpose of the present study was to examine what, if any, distinct trajectories of peer victimization exist among left-behind children and whether these trajectories are related to school climate, left-behind status, and their interactions. Participants were 853 Chinese left-behind children (Mage = 14.25, SD = 2.39; 43.4% girls) who participated in a four-wave longitudinal study conducted in rural China. Participants reported school climate (indexed by safety and order, acceptance and support, equality and fairness, autonomy and cooperation) at T1 and peer victimization across T1 to T4 spanning 2 years. Latent class growth analyses identified four peer victimization trajectories, including a stably low-decreasing group, a moderate-decreasing group, a high-decreasing group, and an increasing group. Multinomial logistic regression analyses revealed that children who perceived more positive school climate were more likely to exhibit a stably low-decreasing trajectory compared to the other three groups. In addition, among left-behind children who perceived more positive school climate, children with single-parent migrating were more likely to be members of the stably low-decreasing group as compared to those with both-parent migrating. Peer victimization among left-behind children is a concern especially for those who were left behind by both parents and perceived less positive school climate. Targeted school-based interventions and services focused on reducing peer victimization and improving school climate are needed for left-behind children, especially those with both-parent migrating.

Objective: Con fl ict-affected youth are at risk for poor psychological and social outcomes, yet few receive mental health services. Strategies to expand access and sustain evidence-based interventions (EBIs) across novel delivery platforms must be tested. The present study was a hybrid type II implementation-effectiveness trial using a cluster randomized design. The primary goal was to evaluate feasibility and impact of using the collaborative team approach to deliver the Youth Readiness Intervention (YRI), an EBI, integrated into a youth entrepreneurship program (ENTR) with quality control in post-con fl ict Sierra Leone. Method: Youth were screened and randomly assigned to control, ENTR, or combined YRI and ENTR (YRI + ENTR). Implementation outcomes were dissemination and implementation indicators, competence, and fi delity. Effectiveness outcomes were emotion regulation, psychological distress, and interpersonal functioning. Secondary outcomes were third-party reporter assessments of youth functioning and behavior. Results: Data were collected and analyzed from 1,151 youth participants and 528 third-party reporters. Scores on implementation constructs, competence, and fi delity demonstrated acceptable intervention response and quality. YRI + ENTR participants showed overall improvements in depression ( b = - .081, 95% CI - 0.124 to - 0.038, d = - 0.154) and anxiety ( b = - .043, 95% CI - 0.091 to - 0.005, d = 0.082) symptoms compared with control participants. Community leaders indicated that YRI + ENTR participants demonstrated improvements in overall work or training performance compared with control participants ( b = - .114, 95% CI 0.004 to 0.232, d = 0.374). Conclusion: Integration of EBIs such as the YRI into youth employment programs has the potential to address limited reach of EBIs in con fl ict and post-con fl ict settings. A collaborative team implementation approach can facilitate integration and fi delity. Plain language summary: In a Hybrid Type-II Implementation-Effectiveness trial conducted in Sierra Leone, researchers tested a Collaborative Team Approach (CTA) for delivering an evidence-based mental health intervention, the Youth Readiness Intervention (YRI), within a youth entrepreneurship program. A total of 1,151 youth participated in the study, with outcomes measured on youth mental health indicators of emotional regulation, psychological distress, and interpersonal functioning, as well as implementation indicators, competence, and fi delity. Results demonstrated that the integrated YRI and entrepreneurship program led to signi fi cant improvements in depression and anxiety symptoms compared to the control group. Community leaders also noted enhanced overall performance in YRI participants, suggesting that integrating evidence-based interventions into youth employment programs can effectively address mental health challenges in low-resource regions. Diversity & Inclusion Statement: We worked to ensure sex and gender balance in the recruitment of human participants. We worked to ensure that the study questionnaires were prepared in an inclusive way. We worked to ensure race, ethnic, and/or other types of diversity in the recruitment of human participants. One or more of the authors of this paper self-identi fi es as a member of one or more historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science. One or more of the authors of this paper self-identi fi es as a member of one or more historically underrepresented sexual and/or gender groups in science. We actively worked to promote sex and gender balance in our author group. We actively worked to promote inclusion of historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science in our author group. The author list of this paper includes contributors from the location and/or community where the research was conducted who participated in the data collection, design, analysis, and/or interpretation of the work. One or more of the authors of this paper received support from a program designed to increase minority representation in science.

Measures that are applicable to assess the positive youth development (PYD) of racially diverse college students are needed. The present study tested if a revised version of the very short form of the PYD measure (PYD-VSF) was applicable to college students from five racial groups in the U. S. (White, Black, Latinx, Asian, and other) across three measurement occasions. Participants were 5,735 college students who completed the PYD-VSF at least once across the three waves of a longitudinal study. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) indicated that a first-order Five Cs structure, a higher-order structure, and a bifactor structure all provided good fit to the data. Multi-group CFA across racial groups found that the first-order structure fit the data better than the higher-order and the bifactor models, and it showed configural-, factor loading-, intercept-, and residual-invariance. Longitudinal CFA models of the first-order structure supported configural-, factor loading-, intercept-, and residual-invariance. The revised PYD-VSF measure has shown the potential to assess PYD among college students of diverse racial-ethnic backgrounds.

Peer victimization is detrimental to child mental health. Research has indicated a reciprocal relationship between peer victimization and mental health problems. Yet limited evidence was from children and adolescents in China. The present study used the random intercepts cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) to examine both between-person and within-person associations between peer victimization and depressive symptoms among Chinese children and adolescents. Participants were 1205 Chinese students (Mage  = 11.27 years; ranged from 9 to 15 years; SD = 1.75; 55% boys) who completed four surveys (Time 1 to Time 4) between 2017 and 2019 on demographics, peer victimization, and depressive symptoms. At the between-person level, peer victimization was positively associated with depressive symptoms. Controlling for between-person effects, RI-CLPM suggested positive within-person effects from peer victimization to depressive symptoms across adjacent waves. The model also suggested a positive within-person effect from Time 2 depressive symptoms to Time 3 peer victimization. The multi-group analysis showed that these effects did not differ by gender, age, or subjective socioeconomic status. Peer victimization and depression appear to be reciprocally related at the transitioning period between late childhood and early adolescence in Chinese students. Mental health interventions should attend to peer victimization for children and adolescents in China.

The present study examined what, if any, patterns of parental control are associated with multiple indicators of psychosocial well-being and whether changes in these patterns over time predict subsequent psychosocial well-being. Latent profile analyses and latent transition analyses were applied to identify subgroups of parental control and transitions of these patterns over time among rural-to-urban migrant adolescents who participated in two waves of surveys with 6-month interval in 2014 (NT1  = 660, NT2  = 553). Multivariate logistic regression was conducted to explore their relationship with psychosocial well-being. Four latent profiles were identified based on levels of parental control at wave 1 and wave 2, respectively. The high psychological and behavioral control (HPHB) group was associated with worse psychosocial well-being whereas the low psychological control and high behavioral control (LPHB) group exhibited opposite relationships. Six transitioning groups were identified: "stably low-risk" (14.92%), "stably medium-risk" (7.37%), "stably high-risk" (24.49%), "floating LPHB" (26.52%), "high-decreasing" (15.10%), and "low-increasing" (11.60%) groups. The "stably high-risk" and "low-increasing" groups showed a higher risk in psychosocial well-being. Youth exhibiting higher risks of parental control (i.e. individuals in HPHB groups and higher-risk transition patterns over time) should prioritize for interventions and services.

Former child soldiers are at elevated risk for mental health problems (e.g., traumatic stress, emotion dysregulation, and internalizing and externalizing problems). To examine which groups of former child soldiers are more likely to have difficulties with emotion regulation, interpersonal relationships, and mental health postconflict, we explored patterns of war trauma exposure and their effects on subsequent mental health problems among former child soldiers in Sierra Leone. Participants were 415 (23.86% female) Sierra Leonean former child soldiers participating in a 15-year, four-wave longitudinal study. At T1 (2002), 282 former child soldiers (aged 10–17) were recruited. T2 (2004) included 186 participants from T1 and an additional cohort of self-reintegrated former child soldiers (NT2 = 132). T3 (2008) and T4 (2016/2017) participants were youth enrolled in previous waves (NT3 = 315; NT4 = 364). Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to classify participants based on the first-time reports of eight forms of war exposure (separation and loss of assets, parental loss, loss of loved ones, witnessing violence, victimization, perpetrating violence, noncombat activities, and deprivation). ANOVA examined whether patterns of war exposure were associated with sociodemographic characteristics and mental health outcomes between T1 and T4. LPA identified two profiles: higher exposure versus lower exposure, using cumulative scores of eight forms of war-related trauma exposure. The ‘higher war exposure’ group comprised 226 (54.5%) former child soldiers and the ‘lower war exposure’ group included 189 (45.5%). Significantly higher levels of violence-related and combat experiences characterized the group exposed to more traumatic events. The ‘higher war exposure’ group reported more PTSD symptoms at T2, more hyperarousal symptoms across all waves, and more difficulties in emotion regulation at T4. Former child soldiers exposed to higher levels of war-related traumatic events and loss should be prioritized for mental health services immediately postconflict and as they transition into adulthood.

Background Former child soldiers are at elevated risk for mental health problems (e.g., traumatic stress, emotion dysregulation, and internalizing and externalizing problems). To examine which groups of former child soldiers are more likely to have difficulties with emotion regulation, interpersonal relationships, and mental health postconflict, we explored patterns of war trauma exposure and their effects on subsequent mental health problems among former child soldiers in Sierra Leone. Methods Participants were 415 (23.86% female) Sierra Leonean former child soldiers participating in a 15-year, four-wave longitudinal study. At T1 (2002), 282 former child soldiers (aged 10-17) were recruited. T2 (2004) included 186 participants from T1 and an additional cohort of self-reintegrated former child soldiers (NT2 = 132). T3 (2008) and T4 (2016/2017) participants were youth enrolled in previous waves (NT3 = 315; NT4 = 364). Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to classify participants based on the first-time reports of eight forms of war exposure (separation and loss of assets, parental loss, loss of loved ones, witnessing violence, victimization, perpetrating violence, noncombat activities, and deprivation). ANOVA examined whether patterns of war exposure were associated with sociodemographic characteristics and mental health outcomes between T1 and T4. Results LPA identified two profiles: higher exposure versus lower exposure, using cumulative scores of eight forms of war-related trauma exposure. The 'higher war exposure' group comprised 226 (54.5%) former child soldiers and the 'lower war exposure' group included 189 (45.5%). Significantly higher levels of violence-related and combat experiences characterized the group exposed to more traumatic events. The 'higher war exposure' group reported more PTSD symptoms at T2, more hyperarousal symptoms across all waves, and more difficulties in emotion regulation at T4. Conclusions Former child soldiers exposed to higher levels of war-related traumatic events and loss should be prioritized for mental health services immediately postconflict and as they transition into adulthood.

In rural China, left-behind children are likely to suffer chronic loneliness. Research has identified a variety of factors that may be associated with loneliness among these children. A meta-analysis is needed to address the empirical inconsistencies and examine the strength of relations between different factors and loneliness. The current meta-analysis included 51 studies on predictors of loneliness published from 2008 to 2017. Results showed that one individual factor (social anxiety) is a key risk factor for loneliness, whereas eight individual (older age, self-esteem, resilience, extroversion) and contextual factors (family functioning, parent-child relationship, peer relationship, social support) serve as protective factors in predicting loneliness. In addition, boys were more likely to feel lonely than girls. Findings and implications of this study were discussed.

Youth sport is a key developmental context for many reasons, including the opportunities it provides for building relationships with peers and its potential to support character development. Peers can influence adolescent sport experiences and shape their motivations, and different peer motivational climates may differentially support athlete character. Established models identify different dimensions of peer motivational climate, yet these models do not describe how aspects of peer climate may align with character. We therefore assess profiles of peer motivational climate in relation to a multi-dimensional practitioner-developed theoretical model for character development through sport. Participants were 655 adolescent athletes from the greater Boston area, in the United States. Athletes perceiving a mastery-involved peer climate, even with high intra-team competition, were most likely to exhibit positive character attributes at the three levels of character assessed: themselves, their teammates, and the game. This study also demonstrates the utility of practitioner-developed models for adolescent research.

Objective To investigate the HIV incidence of men who have sex with men (MSM) in Zhongshan city.Methods The MSM were recruited based on the VCT clinics,and their HIV testing results and related information were investigated every 6 months.Results From April 2014 to April 2016,545 MSM were recruited and 16 cases of new HIV infection were identified,the HIV incidence density was 4.95/100 person-years,which was different by the sexual roles during anal sex.The HIV incidence density of insertive,receptive and both was 0.87/100,7.26/100 and 7.17/100 person-years respectively.The multifactor Cox regression model indicated that the risk factors of HIV infection among MSM included sexual role during anal sex:receptive or both (adjusted HR =3.019,95％CI:1.013-8.993),more than 3 male sexual partners (adjusted HR=3.690,95％CI:1.069-12.734),inconsistent use of condom for each anal sex (adjusted HR=2.324,95 ％ CI:1.087-4.967) and low self-assessment of infection risk (adjusted HR=5.346,95％CI:1.652-17.296).Conclusion The HIV incidence is comparatively high among MSM in Zhongshan.More personalized intervention and education should be intensified to reduce the incidence.

Objective To understand the situation of AIDS sentinel surveillance among sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic in Zhongshan from 2010 to 2015,and analyze the trend of high risk behaviors and serological results.Methods According to the National AIDS Sentinel Surveillance Project,using continuing sampling method,STD clients who met the criterion were recruited,followed by questionnaire investigation tests.Results From 2010 to 2015,2 406 subjects were involved;proportion of age ≤ 49 years old was 81.42％ (1 959/2 406);the ratio who were married or in relationship was 79.05％,which increased year by year(linear trend x2 =4.266,P =0.039).Awareness rate was 90.50％ in 2015,up from 63.50％ in 2010 (linear trendx2 =77.123,P ＜ 0.001).The proportion of commercial sexual behavior occurrence in last 3 months decreased,also like the proportion of casual sexual behavior occurrence in last 3 months and coverage ratio of free condom/counseling & test (each linear trend P ＜ 0.001).Awareness rate of the group of age ≥50 years old was higher than the group of age≤49 years old(68.46％ vs.85.20％,P ＜0.001),as the same as the proportion of free condom/counseling & test (7.40％ vs.11.80％,P =0.007).Conclusion Intervention against AIDS among STD outpatients in Zhongshan has already worked,but the epidemic risk factors exist yet.More attention should be paid to the population older than 50 years old.

Youth development programs represent key tools in the work of youth-serving practitioners and researchers who strive to promote character development and other attributes of youth thriving, particularly among youth who may confront structural and social challenges related to their racial, ethnic, and/or economic backgrounds. This article conducts secondary analyses of two previously reported studies of a relatively recent innovation in Boy Scouts of America (BSA) developed for youth from low-income communities, Scoutreach. Our goal is to provide descriptive and admittedly preliminary exploratory information about whether these data sets—one involving a sample of 266 youth of color from socioeconomically impoverished communities in Philadelphia (M age  = 10.54 years, SD = 1.58 years) and the other involving a pilot investigation of 32 youth of color from similar socioeconomic backgrounds in Boston (M age  = 9.97 years, SD = 2.46 years)—provide evidence for a link between program participation and a key indicator of positive development; that is, character development. Across the two data sets, quantitative and qualitative evidence suggested the presence of character development among Scoutreach participants. Limitations of both studies are discussed and implications for future longitudinal research are presented. We suggest that future longitudinal research should test the hypothesis that emotional engagement is key to creating the conditions wherein Scoutreach participation is linked to character development.

Existing research has found that parental migration may negatively impact the psychological adjustment of left-behind children. However, limited longitudinal research has examined if and how future orientation (individual protective factor) and social support (contextual protective factor) are associated with the indicators of psychological adjustment (i.e., life satisfaction, school satisfaction, happiness, and loneliness) of left-behind children. In the current longitudinal study, we examined the differences in psychological adjustment between left-behind children and non-left behind children (comparison children) in rural areas, and explored the protective roles of future orientation and social support on the immediate (cross-sectional effects) and subsequent (lagged effects) status of psychological adjustment for both groups of children, respectively. The sample included 897 rural children (Mage = 14.09, SD = 1.40) who participated in two waves of surveys across six months. Among the participants, 227 were left-behind children with two parents migrating, 176 were with one parent migrating, and 485 were comparison children. Results showed that, (1) left-behind children reported lower levels of life satisfaction, school satisfaction, and happiness, as well as a higher level of loneliness in both waves; (2) After controlling for several demographics and characteristics of parental migration among left-behind children, future orientation significantly predicted life satisfaction, school satisfaction, and happiness in both cross-sectional and longitudinal regression models, as well as loneliness in the longitudinal regression analysis. Social support predicted immediate life satisfaction, school satisfaction, and happiness, as well as subsequent school satisfaction. Similar to left-behind children, comparison children who reported higher scores in future orientation, especially future expectation, were likely to have higher scores in most indicators of psychological adjustment measured at the same time and subsequently. However, social support seemed not exhibit as important in the immediate status of psychological adjustment of comparison children as that of left-behind children. Findings, implications, and limitations of the present study were discussed.

Heroism may be a topic having broad boundaries, ones pertinent to the diverse accomplishments of humankind (Carlyle, 1993). Although the concept of heroism has been discussed in great detail in such fields as history, political science, religion, and psychology (Carlyle, 1993; Cole, 2005; Jayawickreme & Di Stefano, 2012), little theory-and even less empirical research-has focused on the formation of heroism from the perspective of human development. Nevertheless, researchers can look to a burgeoning literature on the development of character and prosocial behaviors to understand how heroism and heroic leadership may emerge across the life course. Accordingly, as a means to promote developmental research on leadership and heroism, thischapter focuses on the role of character development in the formation of these constructs. We introduce a relational developmental systems-based model that conceptualizes character in regard to mutually influential and, as well, mutually beneficial individual-context relations (Lerner & Callina 2014; Overton, 2015). We present a life-span approach to the study of the development of character, with the aim of offering a model that may account for the emergence of leadership and heroism in the diverse settings involved in human endeavors.