BackgroundIn basketball research, hormonal monitoring has focused almost exclusively on plasma and salivary testosterone and cortisol, as these methods are more practical and accessible for applied sport settings than alternative approaches. Yet, no systematic review recapitulates these two methods together among Basketball players under various (games/training) conditions, and different nutritional strategies.ObjectivesThis systematic review synthesized the existing literature on testosterone and cortisol measurements in basketball players using salivary and blood samples under various (games/training) conditions, and different nutritional strategies, and discussed implications for practical monitoring.MethodsA comprehensive search of electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar) was conducted for studies published between 1999 and 2025. Eligible studies involved basketball players and assessed testosterone and cortisol via salivary or blood sampling during training, matches, or recovery. Data were extracted and narratively synthesized due to heterogeneity and the absence of direct comparison studies.ResultsForty-two studies met the inclusion criteria. Salivary cortisol consistently reflected acute stress responses post-match, aligning closely with blood cortisol measures. Testosterone responses were more variable; salivary testosterone sometimes diverged from blood levels, indicating methodological sensitivity differences. The testosterone-to-cortisol ratio decreased following matches, highlighting a shift toward a catabolic state. Salivary sampling showed practical advantages for field monitoring but requires standardized protocols for testosterone assessment.ConclusionSalivary sampling is a promising, non-invasive alternative for monitoring cortisol in basketball players, with practical benefits for field use. However, discrepancies in salivary testosterone measurements compared to blood samples suggest cautious interpretation. The current literature lacks direct comparative studies in basketball, underscoring the need for future research to validate and standardize hormone monitoring methods to optimize training and recovery strategies.

Strength training is essential for enhancing performance and preventing injuries in soccer. This narrative review explores the complexities of strength training for soccer players, structured around three key areas: (i) the classification and definition of different strength expressions, (ii) the role of the force–velocity continuum in soccer-specific power development, and (iii) the tailored strength methodologies required across different phases of the season. The aim is to clarify how distinct strength qualities align with the physical and performance demands of soccer. The review synthesizes current evidence on the effects of different strength training strategies on key athletic outcomes, highlighting the relevance of explosive methods during the in-season and the foundational role of traditional strength training during the off-season. By integrating theoretical concepts with applied perspectives, the review proposes a conceptual framework that provides evidence-informed recommendations to support practitioners in designing safe, effective, and context-specific training programs for soccer players across developmental stages and competitive schedules. Future research should focus on improving the methodological quality and consistency of intervention studies, clarifying dose–response relationships, and examining the transfer of specific strength qualities to match-related performance outcomes across different age groups and competition levels.

Objectives This study investigated the impact of a 4-week intervention involving High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) and Small-Sided Games (SSGs) on collegiate male soccer players' aerobic and anaerobic capacities as well as blood parameters. Material and methods During the pre-season, participants were randomly divided into training (n = 11) and control (n = 10) groups. Assessments included the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test (30-15 IFT), 30-meter linear sprint, 5-0-5 agility, countermovement jump (CMJ), repeated sprint ability (RSA), and blood biomarkers. The primary outcome was maximal aerobic speed (MAS) derived from the 30-15 IFT. Secondary outcomes included linear sprint time, agility time, repeated sprint time, jump height, and hematological markers. Results Results demonstrated a significant difference of group improvement in MAS after the interventional period (F1,19 = 5.733, p =.029, ηp2 =.264). Furthermore, we found a significant decrease in group comparison in red blood cell count (RBC) (F1,17 = 6.693, p =.020, ηp2 =.295) and hematocrit (HCT) (F1,17 = 4.899, p =.042, ηp2 =.234) after the interventional period. Pairwise comparisons indicated significant decreases in the percentage change of RBC (p = 0.006) and HCT (p = 0.018) in the training group. Conclusions A 4-week combined HIIT + SSGs intervention showcased significant improvements in maximal aerobic speed and hematological alterations among collegiate male soccer players.

OBJECTIVES:Blood flow restriction (BFR) resistance training enhances muscle growth in restricted limbs, but its effects on non-restricted muscles remain unclear. This scoping review, accompanied by an evidence gap map, aims to systematically chart current literature on BFR's impact on non-restricted muscles, summarise key outcomes and identify methodological trends to guide future research. METHODS:Searches were conducted in PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science. Studies included adults-healthy or with musculoskeletal conditions-undergoing BFR resistance training, with passive or active comparator groups in two-arm or multi-arm designs. Data focused on chronic physiological (eg, muscle properties) and physical fitness (eg, strength, power) adaptations. Risk of bias was assessed using RoB 2 (Cochrane Risk of Bias 2 tool) for randomised and ROBINS-I (Risk of Bias in Non-Randomised Studies - of Interventions) for non-randomised studies. RESULTS:From 1740 records, 19 studies (540 participants; 6 women) met the criteria. Intervention durations ranged from 2 to 12 weeks, with training frequencies of 2-6 sessions per week and cuff pressures of 50-270 mm Hg. The most reported outcomes were 1-repetition maximum strength, muscle cross-sectional area and thickness. The pectoralis major and shoulder rotators were the most frequently studied muscles. Most studies implemented BFR training two to three times weekly for an average of 8 weeks. CONCLUSIONS:Evidence suggests BFR training may benefit non-restricted muscles, but variability in study protocols, small sample sizes and limited standardisation hinder broad conclusions. Future research should employ consistent methodologies, larger cohorts and extended interventions to enhance comparability and generalisability. TRIAL REGISTRATION DETAILS:OSF identifier: osf-registrations-q8wcz-v1.

This study investigated the recovery effects of combining dry needling (DN) with Tecar therapy (T) compared to each treatment alone on gastrocnemius muscle recovery in Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) and CrossFit athletes after a fatigue protocol. Forty-eight athletes were randomly assigned to one of the four groups: DN/T, DN/sham T, shamDN/T, and a control group. DN involved needling three trigger points per muscle, while Tecar therapy used electromagnetic waves applied via capacitive transfer. Assessments of perfusion (PU), elasticity (ME), the pain threshold (PPT), and the reactive strength index (RSI) were taken at rest, post-fatigue, post-treatment, and 48 hours post-treatment. A mixed ANCOVA showed the DN/T group had significantly higher PU scores post-treatment compared to all other groups (p < 0.001). ME was significantly lower in the DN/T group at both post-treatment and 48 hours into recovery (p < 0.05). PPT was significantly higher in the DN/T group at both time points, particularly compared to the control condition (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001). The RSI was also significantly higher in the DN/T group at both time points compared to all other groups (p < 0.001). In conclusion, combining DN with T demonstrated superior recovery benefits for blood perfusion, muscle elasticity, the pain threshold, and reactive strength compared to either treatment alone or control, suggesting a synergistic effect beneficial for athletes' muscle recovery.

Introduction: Monitoring training load is essential in elite soccer to optimize performance and reduce injury risk. The training-to-match load ratio (TMr) has emerged as a useful metric to contextualize training demands relative to competitive match exposure. The objective of this study was to compare daily and accumulated TMr between starters and non-starters over a professional season, considering microcycle day and playing position. Methods: Twenty players (Tier 3) from a professional team were monitored during a full competitive season (30 microcycles; 144 training sessions; 30 matches). External load variables, namely total distance (TD), high-speed distance (HSD), sprint distance (SPD), high metabolic load distance (HMLD), acceleration (ACC) and deceleration (DCC), were collected using 10 Hz GPS devices (STATSports). Daily and microcycle TMr were calculated relative to each player’s maximal match value registered during a full competitive period. Linear mixed-effects models examined the effects of starting status, microcycle day, and playing position. Results: Linear mixed models revealed significant three-way interactions (status × day × position) for locomotor variables: TD (F = 3.36, p < 0.001), HSD (F = 2.49, p < 0.001), and SPD (F = 3.37, p < 0.001). Starters accumulated higher loads on match day, whereas non-starters showed higher TMr on MD + 1 and MD + 2. Position-specific differences emerged during acquisition sessions (i.e., MD − 5 to MD − 3), particularly for wide midfielders (WMs) and central defenders (CDs). No significant three-way interactions were observed for ACC, DCC, or HMLD absolute loads (p > 0.05), nor for any accumulated microcycle TMr metrics (p > 0.05). Conclusions: TMr effectively differentiates preparation strategies between starters and non-starters. Although “top-up conditioning” sessions increase early-week relative loads for non-starters, position-specific variations–particularly in mechanical variables during acquisition sessions–highlight the need for individualized load prescription.

To be effective, sport practice must be relevant to the circumstances in which it takes place, as well as to the objectives coaches have set to achieve progress. These circumstances involve many sets of information that coaches must weigh, without neglecting their own biases when prioritizing them. As part of their duty, coaches must design and deliver quality activities that reflect the best available approach given the circumstances, which requires a thorough understanding of how modifications to the original game affect practice. Designing such type of organized practice relies on a rich thinking process that has not been studied yet. In this insight paper, we describe key elements of information about the individuals, the environment, and the policies that constitute the ecosystem of organized practice and suggest strategies to structure their articulation throughout the design of team sport activities. The purpose of revisiting the design process is to establish an objective foundation for practitioners as they think through and conceive activities independently, while keeping players at the heart of the process. Recommendations emphasize greater empowerment and use of available information, rather than efforts to set standards, since a process driven by the coach holds more potential for customized solutions than an inventory of variables. In conclusion, practitioners stand to benefit greatly from relying on guiding principles throughout the process, which ultimately frees them from dependence on decontextualized examples. We finally identify the Design Thinking framework as a matching method for completing this coaching duty.

Abstract Background Recent technological advances have enabled the development of portable data acquisition systems that facilitate the collection of brain signals during sports tasks. The main objective of the present systematic review was to collate evidence regarding studies that have analysed brain-derived indices related to ball kicking action. Methods The PRISMA guidelines were followed in the protocol for this review. Six electronic databases were searched (IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, APA PsycNet, EBSCOHost, and PubMed). The search string followed a PICOS/PECOS framework: participants as human able-bodied subjects regardless of age, evaluated while performing a ball kick task, and reported results of brain-derived metrics. The RoBANS tool was used to evaluate the risk-of-bias of the included studies. Results The database searches resulted in a total of 1748 records, of which 8 original research articles met all the inclusion criteria. Most studies used EEG systems while few employed fNIRS. Qualitative synthesis indicated that skilled ball kicking performance was generally accompanied by phase-specific cortical dynamics (e.g., within frontal, sensorimotor/central, and parieto-occipital regions) whereas anxiety and injury appear to shift cortical engagement toward potentially compensatory, less efficient control strategies. Data on measurement error was limited while blinding aspects were frequently omitted across studies. Finally, one problem identified in this review was that only one-fourth studies used an opponent attempting to block the shots. Conclusions Preliminary evidence suggest that kicking outcomes tended to be linked with specific brain patterns. Future studies need to improve the design of experimental tasks so that they more closely resemble what occurs in a real game. Trial registration The review protocol was registered in OSF Preregistration under ID #NZASB.

This study aimed to compare the effects of small-sided games (SSG) and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on the physical health and fitness of sedentary, untrained young adults. A 16-week randomized controlled trial was conducted with 90 participants (mean age 19.82 ± 0.66 years; 45 males and 45 females), who were randomly assigned in a 1:1:1 ratio to either the SSG group, the HIIT group, or a non-training control group (CG). Each group included 30 participants, and all participants completed the intervention. All interventions were performed three times per week. The SSG group participated in 4v4 or 6v6 handball games, while the HIIT group completed 30-30 (30 s sprint/30 s active recovery) or 40-20 (40 s sprint/20 s active recovery) protocols on an outdoor rubber track at 80-85% of their maximum heart rate (HRmax). Measured outcomes included physiological indicators (body weight, body mass index [BMI], systolic/diastolic blood pressure [SBP/DBP], and resting heart rate [RHR]) and fitness indicators (grip strength, one-repetition maximum squat [1RM], 20-meter multistage fitness test [20 m MFT] performance, and maximal oxygen uptake [VO2max]). Baseline characteristics were well balanced across groups (standardized mean differences < 0.50). After 16 weeks, both SSG and HIIT significantly reduced body weight, BMI, SBP, DBP, and RHR (p < 0.01), while significantly improving 1RM squat, 20 m MFT performance, and VO2max (p < 0.01). In contrast, the CG group showed significant decreases in SBP, left-hand grip strength, and 1RM squat (p < 0.05). Between-group analyses indicated that SSG and HIIT produced substantially greater improvements than the CG in cardiometabolic outcomes, for example, VO2max increased by approximately 7 mL·kg-1·min-1 in both training groups, whereas it showed little or no change in the CG. For body weight and BMI, only body weight differed significantly between the SSG and CG groups (p < 0.05). No significant between-group differences were observed in grip strength (p > 0.05), and no significant differences were found between the SSG and HIIT groups across any indicators (all p > 0.05). In conclusion, both SSG and HIIT effectively improved physical health and fitness in sedentary young adults. SSG may be more suitable for individuals seeking an enjoyable, game-based approach that supports upper limb strength development, while HIIT may be preferable for those aiming to enhance aerobic fitness efficiently. Because SSG offers an enjoyable, socially interactive, game-based format and HIIT provides a time-efficient, highly structured format, both modalities may promote sustained participation beyond initial adoption in previously inactive young adults.

Monitoring physical performance during the pre-season may help coaches and practitioners interpret short-term changes in young soccer players, although group-level analyses may mask individual variability. This observational longitudinal study analyzed short-term changes, individual variability, and associations between baseline performance and change magnitude in 50 under-17 male outfield soccer players during a 47-day pre-season. Physical performance was assessed before and after the pre-season using the squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), 20 m linear sprint (Sprint-20m), 20 m change-of-direction test (COD-20m), and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (Yo-Yo IRL1). Significant improvements were observed in SJ (+1.43 cm, p < 0.001), CMJ (+1.37 cm, p < 0.001), and COD-20m (+0.31 km·h−1, p < 0.001), whereas no statistically significant changes were detected in Sprint-20m (−0.14 km·h−1, p = 0.121) or Yo-Yo IRL1 (−26.20 m, p = 0.721). Individual changes were heterogeneous, with 68.0% improving in SJ and COD-20m, 64.0% in CMJ, 40.0% in Sprint-20m, and 54.0% in Yo-Yo IRL1. Exploratory inverse associations were observed between baseline performance and change scores for SJ (ρ = −0.35, p = 0.014), CMJ (ρ = −0.40, p = 0.004), and COD-20m (ρ = −0.30, p = 0.033), whereas no statistically significant associations were detected for Sprint-20m or Yo-Yo IRL1. These findings support integrating group-level changes, individual variability, and baseline-performance context when interpreting short-term physical performance monitoring in youth soccer.

BACKGROUND:Sided games are very popular in football (soccer) training, designed to integrate technical, tactical, and physical development through the manipulation of constraints such as player numbers, pitch size, and rules, among other variables. However, inconsistent terminology, methodological heterogeneity, and limited empirical guidance have hindered its methodological advancement across research and practice. OBJECTIVE:This consensus aimed to establish a unified framework and evidence-based recommendations for the design, monitoring, and application of sided games in football, providing conceptual clarity and practical guidance for coaches and sport scientists. METHODS:A multidisciplinary group of 20 international experts in football science and coaching developed the framework through a 3-stage process: (1) theoretical model development, (2) synthesis of priority areas based on an umbrella review of 12 systematic reviews and meta-analyses, and (3) iterative drafting and blinded consensus voting on statements using a 9-point Likert scale. RESULTS:Seven statements achieved consensus (scores 7-9), defining sided games in soccer, delineating important influencing factors (coach philosophy, environmental, task, and individual constraints), defining monitoring principles, and highlighting benefits and limitations. The consensus confirmed sided games as effective for developing aerobic fitness and tactical-technical behaviors but less effective for strength, power, and high-speed performance adaptations. CONCLUSIONS:This consensus provides the first framework for sided game training in football, unifying terminology, and guiding evidence-based design. Its implementation can enhance training coherence, optimize player development, and inform future research addressing existing methodological and population-specific gaps.

BackgroundMarathon running imposes substantial metabolic demand. While the acute effects of exercise are well-documented, the chronic immunometabolic alterations associated with intensified training blocks in elite populations remain characterized by complex, non-linear dynamics. Contemporary debates persist regarding whether post-exercise lymphopenia represents immunosuppression (the “open window”) or a functional redistribution of immune effectors. This study explored the chronic effects of a four-week high-intensity training (HIT) block on immune markers in professional marathon athletes and evaluated the utility of an Agent-Based Model (ABM) for visualizing these system behaviors.MethodsTwenty-two professional marathon athletes (14 male, 8 female) underwent a four-week intensified training protocol characterized by sustained time in the severe-intensity domain (blood lactate > 7.0 mmol/L). Peripheral blood samples were analyzed pre- and post-training for leukocytes, immunoglobulins (Ig), cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α), and lymphocyte subsets. Concurrently, a NetLogo-based ABM was developed to simulate theoretical immune system dynamics under metabolic constraints.ResultsThe training period coincided with significant shifts in circulating immune markers. Total leukocyte counts and serum IgG levels were significantly lower post-training (P < 0.01). A marked inversion in T-cell homeostasis was observed, with the CD4+/CD8+ ratio decreasing to 0.98 (P < 0.01), driven by a reduction in CD4+ cells and maintenance of CD8+ populations. Cytokine analysis revealed a “resolution failure” profile: while pro-inflammatory markers IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α increased (P < 0.01), the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was significantly reduced (P < 0.001). The ABM simulation qualitatively reproduced these emergent patterns, visualizing the non-linear contraction of T-cell populations consistent with the empirical data.ConclusionsA four-week block of high-intensity marathon training is associated with a state of immunometabolic perturbation characterized by reduced circulating leukocytes, CD4+/CD8+ imbalance, and an uncoupled inflammatory-resolution cytokine response. While plasma volume expansion may contribute to the observed lower cell concentrations, the specific suppression of IL-10 and CD4+ cells suggests a maladaptive response to chronic load. The agent-based model serves as an exploratory tool for visualizing potential immunological tipping points during intensified training, bridging the gap between reductionist data and complex system dynamics.

Combat-sport performance depends on the interaction between technical skills and physical capacities, yet direct comparisons between grappling disciplines remain limited. The aim of this study was to compare the anthropometric profile and physical performance of elite judo and jiu-jitsu athletes. This cross-sectional study included 25 elite male athletes (judo—n = 12; jiu-jitsu—n = 13) assessed during a preparatory training phase. Anthropometric measures included age, training experience, height, and body mass, while physical performance was evaluated using dominant and non-dominant handgrip strength, squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), medicine ball throw with and without countermovement, and dynamic and isometric judogi-grip pull-up tests. Between-group comparisons were performed using independent sample tests, with effect sizes (ES) calculated. Judo athletes had greater training experience (13.25 ± 2.73 vs. 7.85 ± 4.36 years; p = 0.001; ES = 1.472) and higher SJ performance (38.71 ± 6.69 vs. 33.82 ± 4.74 cm; p = 0.045; ES = 0.850) compared to jiu-jitsu athletes. No significant between-group differences were observed for the remaining variables (p > 0.05). These findings indicate that no statistically significant differences were detected in most anthropometric and physical performance variables between elite judo and jiu-jitsu athletes, and the initially higher squat jump performance observed in judo athletes was no longer statistically significant after adjustment for training experience.

IntroductionThis controlled pre-post study with intact school classes examined whether participation in a TGfU-based handball unit was associated with motivational, cognitive, and technical-tactical changes compared with Direct Instruction and a comparison condition in Brazilian public-school physical education.MethodsSixty-three students aged 11–13 years from three intact classes were allocated to TGfU handball, Direct Instruction handball, or a comparison volleyball unit, with one class per condition. The intervention comprised 20 lessons of 50 min. Outcomes were assessed before and after the instructional unit and included motivation for physical activity participation (MPAM-R), cognitive flexibility assessed exploratorily using the Stroop test, and technical-tactical indicators observed during small-sided handball games. Data were analyzed using nonparametric longitudinal models based on Wald-Type Statistics, with post-hoc comparisons and effect sizes.ResultsEnjoyment showed a Group × Time effect, WTS(2) = 85.60, p < 0.001, increasing only in the TGfU group (4.69 ± 0.81 to 6.42 ± 0.46; p < 0.001, r = 0.876). Competence also showed a Group × Time effect, WTS(2) = 28.02, p < 0.001, increasing only in the TGfU group (4.77 ± 1.06 to 5.99 ± 1.08; p < 0.001, r = 0.846). Stroop outcomes improved over time, but no Group × Time effects were observed. For technical-tactical outcomes, the TGfU group reduced inaccurate passes (1.71 ± 1.38 to 0.43 ± 0.75; p = 0.002, r = 0.667) and increased occupying open spaces (1.19 ± 1.63 to 3.86 ± 3.65; p = 0.001, r = 0.698), whereas the Direct Instruction group decreased accurate passes (20.76 ± 8.90 to 10.14 ± 5.05; p < 0.001, r = 0.831).DiscussionA TGfU-based handball unit was associated with favorable changes in intrinsic motivation-related dimensions and selected offensive tactical behaviors in this school context. No condition-specific changes in cognitive flexibility were observed, suggesting that Stroop performance changes were not specific to TGfU. Because allocation occurred at the class level with one class per condition and without blinding, the findings should be interpreted as contextual associations rather than causal estimates.

BackgroundOfficial match outcomes may be associated with acute psychological responses in youth athletes, particularly in team sports characterized by high emotional and interpersonal demands.ObjectiveTo examine acute psychological responses in male youth volleyball athletes during official matches in a national-level competition, focusing on associations with match outcome (win vs. loss), playing status (starter vs. substitute), and assessment moment (pre- vs. post-match).MethodsFourteen male athletes (mean age 16.5 ± 0.82 years) from a single Brazilian national-level team were followed across 20 official matches (14 wins and 6 losses). Psychological responses were assessed before and/or after matches using validated instruments: State Anxiety (STAI-IDATE), Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS), Feeling Scale, Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES), and Total Quality Recovery (TQR). Generalized estimating equations (GEE) were used with an independent working correlation structure and robust (sandwich) standard errors. Fixed effects included match outcome, playing status, assessment moment, and their interactions. Candidate marginal models were compared via Independence Model Criterion under a parsimonious strategy suitable for small samples.ResultsLosses were associated with increased post-match state anxiety, tension, depression, anger, and confusion, whereas wins were generally associated with stability or more favorable responses in these dimensions. Affective valence also showed an outcome×moment interaction, declining after losses but remaining relatively stable after wins. Vigor demonstrated a three-way interaction between playing status, outcome, and moment, with substitutes showing a more pronounced decline after losses. Fatigue showed main effects of playing status, match outcome, and moment. Enjoyment was higher in wins than losses and higher in starters than substitutes. Perceived recovery showed a playing status×outcome interaction, with starters reporting higher pre-match recovery before matches that resulted in wins.ConclusionIn this single-team observational sample, acute psychological responses appeared to vary according to match outcome, playing status, and assessment moment. These findings should be interpreted as exploratory associations and may support the practical value of psychological monitoring in youth competitive volleyball.

This study investigates the performance characteristics of U18 semi-professional soccer players by examining both technical load (TL) and physical load (PL) variables across various playing positions during the 2021/2022 Spanish Football U18 National League Championship. Methods: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was employed to simplify the dataset, which comprised 246 match records from 49 athletes (mean age 17.9 +/- 0.7 years; height similar to 177.6 +/- 6.3 cm; body mass similar to 72.0 +/- 7.2 kg) across ten matches. This analytical approach aimed to facilitate a deeper understanding of player performance dynamics. Results: Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) values varied across positions (technical load: 0.20-0.93; physical load: 0.27-0.91). This indicates acceptable sampling adequacy for several positional models, but low adequacy for others; therefore, results for positions with low-KMO values should be interpreted cautiously. Factor analysis for both technical and physical load variables identified two components each, explaining substantial total variance (technical load: 63.75-86.65%; and physical load: 71.74-88.92% across position), with significantly high factor correlations (p < 0.001). The findings further indicate that players occupying defensive positions, such as goalkeepers and center-backs, generally exhibit lower levels of physical intensity and technical engagement compared to their counterparts in more dynamic roles, including full-backs, wingers, and forwards. The latter groups demonstrate higher involvement in high-intensity running and offensive actions. Conclusions: The observed performance patterns highlight the necessity for tailored training programs that align with the specific demands of each playing position. This approach is expected to optimize individual player performance and enhance overall tactical efficiency. Furthermore, the study underscores the importance of developing individualized conditioning strategies that address the unique physical and technical requirements inherent to each role on the field. This analytical approach using PCA provides a more structured and data-driven understanding of these positional differences, reinforming the need for tailored training programs and individualized conditioning strategies.

Introduction:Team Sports (TSG) have been discussed as an accessible and socially engaging way to support mental health. Although this idea is intuitively appealing and supported by several observational findings, the actual consistency of their effects on anxiety and mood in adults who do not have diagnosed mental disorders remains uncertain.The study aims to map how TSG has been investigated in this context and to systematically synthesize current evidence on their effects on anxiety and mood (PROSPERO: CRD420251121611). Methods:This systematic review followed PRISMA 2020 recommendations. Five databases were searched: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library. Eligible studies included longitudinal, face-to-face TSG interventions involving adults or older adults and reporting validated psychometric outcomes. Randomized trials were assessed using the Cochrane RoB 2 tool and the PEDro scale, whereas non-randomized studies were evaluated using ROBINS-I. Results:Six studies involving 744 participants met the inclusion criteria. The included interventions involved soccer/football, floorball, volleyball/soccer programs, small-sided soccer games, and recreational TSG. Two studies reported reductions in anxiety symptoms, while one randomized trial showed reduced mood disturbance when small-sided games were combined with verbal encouragement. One trial found no significant changes in generalized anxiety, depressive symptoms, perceived stress, or well-being. Another randomized trial showed that recreational TSG improved mental-health-related quality of life compared with control. Discussion:Evidence suggests that TSG may promote improvements in symptoms of anxiety and depression. However, in non-clinical adult populations, the value of TSG may lie less in producing large reductions in psychiatric symptoms and more in improving psychosocial functioning, perceived well-being, and social connection. Conclusion:Current evidence suggests that TSG may improve selected mental-health and psychosocial outcomes in adults, including anxiety symptoms, mood disturbance, emotional well-being, and mental-health-related quality of life. However, these effects were inconsistent among studies and were strongly influenced by intervention context.

This scoping review aimed to map and summarise the literature examining how different small-sided games (SSG) training regimens affect physical, psychophysiological, technical, and tactical outcomes in soccer players. The methodology followed the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, where three databases were searched. Eligible studies directly compared at least two SSG regimens (continuous vs intermittent; intermittent formats with differing work durations; or intermittent formats with differing rest durations). In total, 30 studies were included. Across the comparison types assessed, continuous vs intermittent regimens were the most studied, particularly for physiological measures ( n = 15), followed by intermittent comparisons manipulating bout duration ( n = 15 for physiological, n = 11 for physical outcomes). Studies focusing on rest/density manipulations were fewer, especially for technical outcomes ( n = 3). Most studies clustered around mid-sized SSG formats (3v3–5v5), with 4v4 particularly dominant in continuous–intermittent contrasts ( n = 9). In contrast, very small-sided formats (1v1, 2v2) and larger-sided formats (6v6, 7v7) were rarely explored under these regimen conditions. Shorter bouts tended to increase external intensity per unit time and total distance, while fractionating continuous play into sets generally raised per-minute intensity and high-speed actions but reduced total volume. In small formats, continuous play tended to elicit higher heart rate, lactate, and enjoyment, though one study suggested females preferred intermittent, whereas males reported greater enjoyment and load with continuous play. Rest duration also appeared to modulate outcomes, with very short recoveries linked to reduced passing success and longer rests enabling better ball actions. In conclusion, current evidence is largely focused on physical and psychophysiological responses, while technical and especially tactical domains remain underexplored. To better inform training design, future research should aim to incorporate objective assessments of technical and tactical outcomes – using objective tools – while also extending to female players, elite levels, and longitudinal designs. These steps would help determine whether the acute responses mapped here translate into consistent adaptations across contexts.

Objective:This randomized controlled trial compared the effects of 1v1 and 3v3 basketball small-sided games (SSGs) on body anthropometric-related outcomes and physical fitness in sedentary female college students. Methods:Sixty-three sedentary female university students aged 18-21 years were randomized to 1v1 SSGs (n = 21), 3v3 SSGs (n = 21), or a non-training control group (n = 21) for 8 weeks. Training was performed three times per week, with each 60-min session including 40 min of SSG play. Outcomes were assessed at baseline, week 4, and week 8. All randomized participants completed the scheduled assessments, with no missing outcome cases. Adherence was 94.5% in the 1v1 group and 92.8% in the 3v3 group. The primary outcome was 20-m multistage fitness test distance. Secondary outcomes included body mass, body mass index, waist circumference, hip circumference, waist-to-hip ratio, the sum of skinfold thicknesses, handgrip strength, vertical jump height, and standing long jump distance. Linear mixed-effects models including group, time, and group × time were used to estimate longitudinal intervention effects. Results:The primary outcome improved more in both intervention groups than in the control group. The 20-m multistage fitness test distance increased by 29.1% in the 1v1 group and 35.3% in the 3v3 group, compared with 1.1% in the control group; the model-estimated differences in baseline-to-week 8 change versus control were 120.95 m for 1v1 and 151.43 m for 3v3, with both Holm-adjusted p values < 0.001. Body mass decreased by 6.8% in the 1v1 group and 8.2% in the 3v3 group, compared with 0.8% in the control group. The corresponding differences in baseline-to-week 8 change versus control were -3.45 kg for 1v1 and -4.18 kg for 3v3, both with Holm-adjusted p values < 0.001. The sum of skinfold thicknesses decreased by 10.6% in the 1v1 group and 12.2% in the 3v3 group, compared with 0.4% in the control group (p values < 0.001). Secondary fitness outcomes also improved more in the intervention groups than in the control group, including handgrip strength, vertical jump height, and standing long jump distance. The 3v3 format showed larger exploratory gains than 1v1 in vertical jump height and standing long jump distance, whereas direct between-format differences for multistage fitness test distance and handgrip strength were not statistically significant. Conclusions:Eight weeks of recreational basketball SSGs improved cardiorespiratory fitness, several adiposity-related indicators, and neuromuscular fitness in sedentary female college students. These findings support basketball SSGs as a reasonable university-based exercise strategy, although between-format comparisons should be interpreted cautiously because they were exploratory. Future studies should test these formats in larger multicenter samples, include longer-term follow-up, and incorporate dietary/free-living activity monitoring and direct training-load measures to clarify sustainability, mechanisms, and format-specific effects.