Published research on Matja Kuru 2 (MK2) demonstrates its significance for understanding human lifestyle during the terminal Pleistocene and Holocene. Murids represent the most commonly identified taxa in the site, with specimens preliminarily classified as small, large and giant based on size comparisons. However, the identification of the large and giant murid species present in the deposit remains elusive, as the correlation between dental material and postcranial elements is unclear. While there is evidence of human predation of large and giant murids, the absence of distinctive macroscopic traits to identify species based on postcranial impedes assessment of whether some niches were specifically targeted. Here we present the biometric analysis of a subsample of the large and giant murids from MK2. The comparison of our linear measurements with those from postcranial elements assigned to large and giant murid species in the same region allows us to suggest that the different specimens would have exploited diversified niches, providing complementary data to interpret human-animal interactions during the Pleistocene and Holocene in MK2.

The Austronesian dispersal is the largest such event in human history, with descendants of people from Taiwan colonizing islands from Rapa Nui to Madagascar. The extent to which this dispersal was facilitated by an economic package or a particular ideology is uncertain. The “Austronesian Painting Tradition” (APT) is a distinctive rock art style dominated by paintings of small human figures, boats, and geometric motifs found in eastern Wallacea and islands around New Guinea. The age of the APT is thus far poorly constrained, with uncertainty over whether it appeared endogenously through earlier Holocene interisland networks, if it arrived with the earliest Austronesian migrants, or if it appeared during the intensified interisland contact of the Indonesian Metal Age beginning ~2,500 y ago. Here we report the recovery of a painted stone plaque excavated in situ from archaeological excavation on Wetar Island, Maluku. The plaque occurs in a transitional layer between Paleolithic and Neolithic occupation. It bears a classic “Austronesian” red concentric circle and sun-ray motif and is dated to between 4090 and 3900 cal. BP, significantly earlier than the first pottery at the site and in this region. The early date for this plaque in a preceramic layer and its location in southeast Maluku supports the view that the APT had an early origin, and that the Austronesian diaspora was either propelled by or leveraged a compelling symbolic ideology.

Billions of specimens are in biodiversity collections worldwide, and this infrastructure is crucial for research on Earth's natural history. Three-dimensional (3D) imagery of specimens is an increasingly important part of the digital extended specimen network of metadata. Open-access, high-fidelity 3D imagery of biodiversity specimens improves researcher efficiency and equity and increases public engagement with collections. We introduce Ozboneviz, an open-access collection of FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable, reusable) 3D imagery aiming to enhance research capacity in Australasian vertebrate skeletal morphology. Ozboneviz is an Australian test case demonstrating the feasibility of creating multi-institutional, FAIR 3D biodiversity imagery collections. We outline its project design, challenges, and use by the international research community. We then discuss the urgent need for investment in infrastructure and curatorial support to progress the digitization of Australian biodiversity collections in a way that maximizes stakeholder benefit and facilitates 3D data discoverability and retrieval.

The cave site known as Matja Kuru 2 (MK2) in Timor-Leste was first occupied ∼40 kya. Of the caves investigated thus far in Timor-Leste MK2 is unique in being located proximal to a large freshwater lake, Ira Lalaro, providing the opportunity to examine changing occupation dynamics in a lakeside environment from the Late Pleistocene through to the late Holocene. We present the analysis of the Matja Kuru 2 assemblage including the stone, ochre, shell and bone artefacts, and the vertebrate and invertebrate remains. We discuss the challenges posed by cave deposits in tropical Island South East Asia which often preserve little in the way of identifiable stratigraphy. Such caves also present challenges in terms of disentangling what components of the faunal assemblage were deposited as meal refuse by humans, as opposed to by other predators or as a result of natural deaths. We suggest a method for assisting with this taphonomic conundrum.

Extensive research carried out during the last 30 years in the lowermost foothills of the Southern Pyrenees has revealed the significance of this area for studying Neanderthal lifestyle and settlement histories in the Iberian Peninsula. With a large number of cave and rock shelter sites, broad-ranging chronologies, and relatively well-known sedimentation rates and environmental conditions, this enclave continues to improve our knowledge about Neanderthal behaviour in Western Europe.Here we present the chronostratigraphic, technological, faunal, and palaeoenvironmental results from Abric Pizarro, a recently discovered site from the region. Its archaeological sequence is centred on MIS 4, a poorly known period in Neanderthal history. The application of three different dating methods (newly obtained single-grain optically stimulated luminescence and U-series fossil teeth ages, in addition to previously published thermoluminescence ages) provides an accurate chronology for a site where the exceptional preservation of faunal remains leads to significant interpretations of Neanderthal hunting abilities and adaptability. Moreover, analysis of the lithic assemblage, as well as preliminary palaeoenvironmental data, are used to provide insights into the degree to which chronocultural or palaeoenvironmental factors were responsible for some of the significant differences observed among the four archaeological units explored in Abric Pizarro to date. Our results contribute to discussion about Neanderthal resilience and their livelihood before their disappearance from the archaeological record.

Rituals and feasting ceremonies at Polynesian marae depict culturally complex relationships between humans and animals that cannot be explained by subsistence alone. In Central-East Polynesia, this topic still requires the elaboration of a "ritual zooarchaeology" framework. Using sea turtle assemblages from three sacred sites on Fakahina atoll (Tuamotu), this study offers a preliminary approach to faunal deposits from ritual contexts. Following systematic excavations of marae on Fakahina, analysis aimed to determine whether faunal deposits could be linked with intentional feasting and offering behaviours. To detect how ritual actions were organised through space, skeletal and taphonomic variables were examined for both overall sites and "sub-assemblages" within sites based on the spatial associations of fauna with site features.At certain site features, derived quantitative units such as %MAU and recovery rate could identify potential offering behaviours through the intentional sorting of culturally significant body parts. The taphonomic signatures of site features could also identify open or closed deposition environments, assisting with the identification of disturbed features as either exposed platforms or enclosed cists. In addition to highlighting previously undocumented complexity in the use of site features, an overall comparison of turtle remains from the three sites shows the potential of these methods to explore variation in ritual practices. Les rituels et festins ceremoniels conduits sur les marae polynesiens refletent des relations hommes-animaux complexes depassant le cadre de la simple subsistance. Neanmoins, ce sujet de recherche en Polynesie centre-orientale requiert l'elaboration d'un cadre d'analyse, autrement dit une "archeozoologie du rituel." Se basant sur des assemblages de tortues de trois sites sacres sur l'atoll de Fakahina (archipel des Tuamotu), cette etude cherche a determiner si les depots fauniques peuvent etre mis en rapport avec des comportements de consommation ceremonielle ou d'offrandes. Afin de reconstituer l'organisation spatiale des actions rituelles, nous examinons les variations squelettiques et taphonomiques aux echelles inter et intra-sites.Dans certaines structures, les analyses quantitatives (Minimal Animal Unit, Recovery rate) ont permis d'identifier des comportements rituels au travers du depot intentionnel de parties importantes de l'animal. Les signatures taphonomiques contribuent egalement a distinguer des environnements de depot ouverts ou fermes. Cette etude revele non seulement une complexite de gestes jusqu'a present pas documentes archeologiquement, mais aussi le potentiel de notre approche pour explorer les variations de pratiques rituelles entre sites.

The study of bone surface modifications (BSMs) offers a window into behaviors and subsistence strategies adopted by ancient hominins. Geospatial software have become valuable tools for BSM analysis, facilitating the spatial recording and visualization of these modifications. This study introduces an innovative and accessible workflow that leverages the power of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for BSM analysis while sidestepping the limitations of proprietary software. By employing Quantum GIS (QGIS) software, this approach democratizes the analytical process and expands its potential applications. This workflow was applied in an experimental study to record slicing, scraping, and tooth marks on Tasmanian wallaby tibiae. Subsequently, a comprehensive statistical analysis was performed using the open-access PAST software. The results yielded distinct spatial distribution patterns associated with the three types of BSMs. The key findings underscore that different butchery and consumption actions produce discernible spatial patterns on the bone surfaces, substantiated by nearest neighbor analyses. A critical aspect illuminated by the linear discriminant analysis was the variation in classification success rates. This nuanced perspective reveals that although certain BSMs exhibited consistently high classification success rates, others displayed varying success rates. This variation underscores the intricate nature of BSM interpretation and the need for a comprehensive analytical approach that integrates both spatial and morphological characteristics. In addition to its scientific contributions, this study also sheds light on practical considerations. The creation of bone templates for QGIS analysis was noted as a time-consuming task. However, this limitation could be mitigated by collaborative efforts to build a shared digital library of skeletal templates, transforming the workflow into a more streamlined process. In sum, this study not only presents an innovative method for slicing, scraping, and tooth mark analysis using open-access GIS but also emphasizes the method's potential applications and its role in advancing our understanding of past human behaviors.

Burial practices commonly reflect cultural manifestations shared by a community. How deceased are interred can reflect belief systems, hygiene measures, or complex social diversification, among other factors. In modern times, these practices are highly standardized based on belief and social systems, with static rites repeated throughout time. In prehistoric times, it could be assumed that similar static systems would have been present, with the standing burial practices adopted by a community or including limited modifications. As such, similar mortuary practices in distant regions can provide evidence of migrations or cultural transmission. Extensive research carried out in Southeast Asia reveals diverse burial treatments during both synchronic and diachronic periods. Through a review of the burial practices identified in sites dated from the Late Pleistocene to the Holocene (until 3000ya) in Mainland and Island Southeast Asia, this chapter aims to address how mortuary practices can inform on prehistoric human migrations in Southeast Asia before the Austronesian dispersal. A specific case study is presented summarizing previous research in Tron Bon Lei (Alor Island, Indonesia).

The analysis of dugong bone mounds in the Torres Strait Islands has traditionally focused on ritualized deposition and treatment of remains, the distinction between formalized ritual and midden refuse, and their socio-political and spiritual role within Torres Strait Islander seascapes. Research has consistently targeted the abundance of specific skeletal elements in a mound, with interpretations frequently based on the calculation of common quantitative units (i.e., NISP and MNI) or relative weight to assess proportional representation. Far less research has focused on the taphonomic history and processes embodied by these mounds. This paper presents a novel zooarchaeological and taphonomic analysis of dugong bone mounds where qualitative and quantitative data are combined. Through the analysis of two assemblages from Woeydhul Island (Western Torres Strait, Australia), this paper provides inferences regarding deposition time span and formalized depositional behaviors. Our research examines the age distribution of represented animals and differential butchery practices associated with anatomical provenance, while also suggesting new methods for identification of sex ratios in these assemblages. Our results provide new approaches to investigate dugong hunting by past Torres Strait communities, proposing the combination of sex, butchery patterns, and meat utility indices to interpret the meaning of dugong bone mounds in the Western Torres Strait.

The examination of faunal assemblages through zooarchaeological analyses constitutes a fundamental approach for gaining insight into the intricate behaviours of Neanderthals. Previous investigations have primarily focused on periods of relative environmental stability, and this has provided a wealth of relevant archaeological data. However, our understanding of Neanderthal resilience during the MIS 4, a period presumably characterised by harsh environmental conditions, remains limited. This study presents the first comprehensive analysis of the faunal assemblages from Levels M and P at Abric Pizarro. The geographic location of Abric Pizarro in the southeast Pre-Pyrenees, combined with chronometric dating, offers a unique opportunity to explore Neanderthal behaviours during a poorly known chronological period. The detailed zooarchaeological analysis comprised taxonomic identification, taphonomic analysis and age-at-death profiling to explore the adaptability and flexibility in the Neanderthal diet. The findings indicate that Neanderthal groups incorporated a diverse range of protein resources from small herbivores (e.g., caprids) to very large herbivores (e.g., Bos/Bison). These results not only demonstrate an adaptability to changing environments in an area traditionally deemed unsuitable for long-term occupation, but also contributes significantly to our understanding of the complex behaviours exhibited by Neanderthals.

Homo sapiens were adept at fishing in a range of aquatic habitats by the time they left Africa and reached Southeast Asia ca . 73 kya. In the insular region of Wallacea, humans adapted to a significant maritime environment with sophisticated marine fishing methods and technology by at least 42 kya. However, despite a growing array of evidence suggesting an early inland terrestrial adaptation on large islands in this tropical region, there was previously no evidence of fishing in inland wetlands habitats on the depauperate islands of Wallacea. Here we present new evidence of both marine and freshwater fishing recovered from different occupation phases from the cave sites Laili ( ca . 44.6–11.7 kya) and Matja Kuru 2 ( ca . 40 kya to Late Holocene) on the island of Timor (Timor-Leste), located near significant riverine and lake environments respectively. This indicates that humans adapted to a wider range of aquatic habitats over time and space in Wallacea than previously thought and moved freely between inland and coastal habitats. Diversification of fishing strategies likely improved chances of survival in an island landscape with an impoverished suite of terrestrial vertebrates under changing climatic conditions.

The analysis of subsistence practices in the Lesser Sunda Islands (from Bali in the west to Wetar and Timor to the east) provides data to interpret anatomically modern humans' subsistence adaptation in insular environments. Most previous analyses of small vertebrate assemblages in these islands have focused on sites with evidence of intensive coastal subsistence, where the fish and other marine faunal remains can be assigned unequivocally to human predation. Inland sites, however, contain large quantities of murids, reptiles and bats of varying sizes, which could have been accumulated by different predators. Here we present the first detailed taphonomic analysis of the faunal assemblage recovered from the Pleistocene levels of the inland cave site Matja Kuru 2 (Timor-Leste), dominated by small murids, followed by large and giant murids, reptiles, birds, bats and fish bones. Through the study of skeletal representation, fragmentation and bone surface modifications in the large and giant murids, turtle and fish remains, we aim to determine whether humans were responsible for their presence in the older units of the site, whether they comprise natural deaths, or were prey of non-human predators such as raptors. Our analyses indicate differences in predator actions according to age of prey and taxa, with adult large and giant murids, freshwater turtles and fish showing evidence of human predation. The results presented here contribute significantly to understanding human behaviour in insular environments and deposition dynamics in karstic taphosystems in Island Southeast Asia, as well as providing a framework for future taphonomic studies in the region.

Human adaptations to marine resources were critical in the successful colonization of Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) and the Pacific since the Late Pleistocene. Fishing the dense biomass of ichthyofauna present in this maritime region required the cognitive capability to conceptualize fish ecology and develop methods and technologies to exploit these challenging underwater environments. This likely gave our species an edge over other hominin species in depauperate island landscapes. This paper reviews the limited number of archaeological sites in ISEA where fish bone assemblages and fishing gears have been recovered, incorporating new archaeological data from the site of Asitau Kuru (Jerimalai), Timor-Leste. Our findings indicate continuity in fishing behavior over several millennia with a near-shore exploitation of local marine habitats including trolling, line fishing and spearing. These data indicate the ecological plasticity of our species and the enduring fishing traditions passed on to generations through learned behavior.

The crossing of the Wallacean islands and settlement of Sahul by modern humans over 50,000 years ago, represents the earliest successful seafaring of our species anywhere in the world. Archaeological research throughout this vast island archipelago has recovered evidence for varied patterns in island occupation, with accumulating evidence suggesting a significant change in cultural activities and interaction amongst island communities following the LGM. New forms of technology such as shell fish hooks and adzes appear alongside standardised forms of shell beads, indicating that these technological innovations were accompanied by shared styles of personal ornamentation. Simultaniously, obsidian from a single, off-island source is found in the archaeological assemblages on at least four islands. We explore these implied spheres of interaction across Wallacea, with a focus on the terminal-Pleistocene/early-Holocene cultural materials and customs linking the southeastern Wallacean islands of Alor, Timor, and Kisar, and other parts of greater Wallacea and Near Oceania.

Burial elaborations are a human behaviour that, in recent contexts can inform on social diversification, belief systems, and the introduction of new practices resulting from migration or cultural transmission. The study of mortuary practices in Mainland and Island Southeast Asia has revealed complex and diverse treatments of the deceased. This paper contributes to this topic with the description of three new burials excavated in Tron Bon Lei (Alor Island, Indonesia) dated to 7.5, 10, and 12 kya cal BP. In addition to the bioskeletal profiles and palaeohealth observations, we propose the adoption of archaeothanatological methods to characterise burial types in the region. Through the analysis of skeletal element representation, body position, articulation, and grave associations, we provide an example of a holistic approach to mortuary treatments in the Lesser Sunda Islands. Our results provide significant new data for understanding the evolution and diversification of burial practices in Southeast Asia, contributing to a growing body of literature describing prehistoric socio-cultural behaviour in this region.

This paper reviews the available vertebrate record from the Lesser Sunda Islands to explore the effect the Last Glacial Maximum had on human subsistence strategies. By focusing on vertebrate assemblages from Laili and Matja Kuru 2 in Timor Leste, Tron Bon Lei in Alor Island, and Here Sorot Entapa in Kisar, this paper investigates biodiversity and resource availability in these nearby islands through the application of standardising indices and statistical testing. Results indicate that vertebrate biodiversity remained fairly stable through and after the Last Glacial Maximum, suggesting that in terms of available mammals, birds and reptiles, this period did not led to severe resource depletion. Hence, potential variations in human subsistence practices or occupation dynamics might not be due to changes in vertebrate diversity. As such, this analysis contributes to investigating anatomically modern humans' subsistence adaptation in the Lesser Sunda Islands pre- and post-Last Glacial Maximum.

The study of human diet in the past investigates the presence and post-depositional survival of indicators to identify human interactions with animals and plants. When present, their recognition requires the use of high-resolution images to distinguish their provenance. Nevertheless, inconspicuous surface modifications, such as human tooth scores, are difficult to identify even through high quality images. The use of laser scanning confocal microscopy offers quality images, which when combined with morphometric values, provide means of differentiating between different types of anthropogenic bone surface modifications. This paper presents a neotaphonomic experimental study testing whether measurement types and magnification level affect the accuracy of established identifications methods for grouping different categories of human modifications related to the consumption of small vertebrates. Through the multivariate statistical analyses of repeated measures, this paper proposes the best combination of parameters to identify human tooth scores in small vertebrates using laser scanning confocal microscopy. The results have implications for the study of human consumption of small prey, including rabbits, rodents, birds and reptiles, a key piece in the research of human occupation patterns and behaviour during the Pleistocene in Eurasia and Island Southeast Asia.

Secret societies, involving restricted and hierarchically organised initiation rituals, are conspicuous in the chronicles of many past and present societies. These rarely leave a substantial written record and yet archaeology can provide vivid insight into past performances, for example in relation to Roman ‘mystery cults’. Far less research, however, has focused on Australia and the Pacific Islands. This article presents archaeological evidence for ceremonies practised on Woeydhul Island in the Western Torres Strait, exploring initiation rituals at the cusp of contemporary memory. By doing so, it provides a detailed and long-term history for Torres Strait Islander secret societies and ritual activities involving dugong bone mounds, stone arrangements and worked stingray spines.

Mortuary contexts in geographical and chronological settings such as islands are key to investigating human migration pathways, population replacements, diet, health, occupational activities, belief systems as well as other aspects of social behaviour. Located between Mainland Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Island Southeast Asia is of particular interest in this respect. As yet, however, few complete burials predating the Neolithic have been recovered and described from within this vast region. This paper presents a sub-adult burial from Gua Makpan, Alor Island, Indonesia, which is dated to the early mid-Holocene. The anatomical description and bioskeletal profile of the remains is complemented by the analysis of mortuary practices. Our results suggest a delayed primary burial or a secondary treatment, where long bone diaphyses were removed prior to interment. The stratigraphical position of the remains indicates that the skeleton was not interred in anatomical position, which supports the hypothesis of secondary treatment of the remains. The mortuary practices documented in the sub-adult burial from Gua Makpan are compared to burial practices documented for sites from elsewhere in Island Southeast Asia. We assess differences and similarities in mortuary treatments, that could inform on shared mortuary rituals across this maritime region and changing social practices with human migrations, or the introduction of new burial practices.

The resource-poor, isolated islands of Wallacea have been considered a major adaptive obstacle for hominins expanding into Australasia. Archaeological evidence has hinted that coastal adaptations in Homo sapiens enabled rapid island dispersal and settlement; however, there has been no means to directly test this proposition. Here, we apply stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis to human and faunal tooth enamel from six Late Pleistocene to Holocene archaeological sites across Wallacea. The results demonstrate that the earliest human forager found in the region c . 42,000 years ago made significant use of coastal resources prior to subsequent niche diversification shown for later individuals. We argue that our data provides clear insights into the huge adaptive flexibility of our species, including its ability to specialize in the use of varied environments, particularly in comparison to other hominin species known from Island Southeast Asia.