PURPOSE:This study analyzes the mediating role of social identity in the relationship between enacted stigma and internalized stigma and quality of life of people with HIV.METHODS:A total of 557 people with HIV participated in this study. Participants were recruited from hospitals and non-governmental organizations. Questionnaires measuring perceived stigma (Berger's HIV Stigma Scale), social identity (Cameron's three factor identity scale), and quality of life (Ruiz and Baca's Quality of Life Questionnaire) were administered. The instruments were adapted for use with the Spanish population. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the mediation model, and multigroup SEM was conducted to evaluate its invariance.RESULTS:Both enacted stigma and internalized stigma had a negative influence on the quality of life of people with HIV, but this influence occurred in different ways. Enacted stigma had a direct negative influence on quality of life. No dimension of group identity protected people with HIV from its negative influence. However, the negative influence of internalized stigma was totally mediated by some dimensions of group identification, mainly through in-group affect.CONCLUSIONS:Group identification not only did not protect people with HIV from the negative effects of stigmatization, but it may even be detrimental in the case of internalized stigma. This suggests that in highly stigmatized groups, the salience of identity is negative and worsens the members' opinion of their own group. This argues for different kinds of intervention to improve the quality of life of people with HIV.

ResumenLa investigación en torno a los factores determinantes de la elección de un medio de transporte u otro ha puesto de relieve la importancia de la función instrumental de los mismos. El análisis cualitativo proveniente de 6 grupos de discusión (78 personas) llevados a cabo en Madrid, Bilbao y San Sebastián pone de manifiesto que tanto la función simbólica que cumplen los medios de transporte como el afecto asociado a su uso resultan relevantes, junto con la función instrumental, a la hora de elegir un medio de transporte concreto. De hecho, las referencias emocionales presentan una alta frecuencia de mención en relación con el transporte público. La evaluación de las diferencias entre el transporte público y privado, en relación con las funciones instrumental y simbólica, y el afecto asociado, sugiere que el transporte público es considerado pobre en cuanto a su función instrumental y de forma negativa en cuanto a su función simbólica, mientras que el transporte privado es valorado muy positivamente en cuanto a su función instrumental y simbólica. Finalmente, el aspecto afectivo es evaluado de forma más ambivalente en relación al transporte privado mientras que para el transporte público es fundamentalmente negativo.AbstractResearch concerning the deciding factors in choosing one transport mode over another has emphasised the important instrumental function of such factors. Qualitative analysis from 6 focus groups (7–8 participants) conducted in Madrid, Bilbao, and San Sebastian showed that the symbolic function and affect associated with modes of transport are—together with the instrumental function—relevant for choosing a specific transport mode. In fact, references to feelings and emotions regarding public transport obtained high frequencies. Assessment of differences between public and private transport, in relation with instrumental and symbolic functions, and associated affect, suggests that public transport is considered poor in terms of its instrumental function, and negatively with respect to its symbolic function. On the other hand, both the instrumental and symbolic functions of private transport are valued very positively. Finally, affective reactions to private transport are more ambivalent than to public transport, which are essentially negative.Palabras clave: Afectofunción instrumentalfunción simbólicamedios de transporteKeywords: Affectinstrumental functionsymbolic functionmodes of transport

Research concerning the deciding factors in choosing one transport mode over another has emphasised the important instrumental function of such factors. Qualitative analysis from 6 focus groups (7-8 participants) conducted in Madrid, Bilbao, and San Sebastian showed that the symbolic function and affect associated with modes of transport are-together with the instrumental function-relevant for choosing a specific transport mode. In fact, references to feelings and emotions regarding public transport obtained high frequencies. Assessment of differences between public and private transport, in relation with instrumental and symbolic functions, and associated affect, suggests that public transport is considered poor in terms of its instrumental function, and negatively with respect to its symbolic function. On the other hand, both the instrumental and symbolic functions of private transport are valued very positively. Finally, affective reactions to private transport are more ambivalent than to public transport, which are essentially negative.

ResumenLa investigación sobre la función que cumplen los medios de transporte ha identificado la existencia de tres funciones principales: instrumental, simbólica y afectiva. Sin embargo, no hay consenso sobre las relaciones que se establecen entre dichas funciones. Los resultados obtenidos a través del análisis de 6 grupos de discusión muestran que las consecuencias emocionales se vinculan con las características asociadas tanto a la función instrumental como a la función simbólica de los medios de transporte. Las características instrumentales que conllevan consecuencias emocionales positivas y negativas son, principalmente, las asociadas con la temporalidad (tiempo que se invierte en el trayecto) y la versatilidad (disponibilidad de uso en diferentes situaciones) del funcionamiento de los medios de transporte. Las características simbólicas con carga emocional, por su parte, son aquellas relacionadas con la auto-expresión (expresión de identidad) y la categorización social (estatus y prestigio) identificadas con los medios de transporte. Se discuten las implicaciones de los resultados para la estructuración de las funciones asociadas a los medios de transporte.

Psychological research into the functions of different modes of transport has identified three main functions: instrumental, symbolic, and affective. However, no consensus has been reached regarding the relationship between them. Results from six focus groups show that emotional consequences are associated with both instrumental and symbolic functions of different modes of transport. Instrumental characteristics implying positive and negative emotions are temporality (journey time) and versatility (availability of use), mainly. Emotionally-charged symbolic characteristics are linked to self-expression (expression of identity) and social categorization (status and prestige). Implications for the functional structuring of different modes of transport are discussed

A large part of the research on risk in driving has been related to the consumption of alcohol and other substances. However, few studies have analysed risk behaviour in relation to road infrastructure. It took the dramatic accident in the Mont Blanc tunnel to highlight the lack of knowledge about the human factor involved in tunnel accidents and about the factors affecting emergency situations in such settings. This study compares drivers' perceptions and emotions in relation to driving in tunnels with those provoked by driving on normal roads in the open-air. Furthermore, we explore the factors relevant to risk perception and risk behaviour in tunnels. A total of 458 drivers from Madrid (Spain) responded to a questionnaire on these aspects. The results indicate that tunnels provoke unpleasant feelings and greater perception of risk than roads open to the sky. In spite of these feelings and perceptions, participants drive riskily in tunnels. In this study, we analyse the factors related to perception of risk and driving in tunnels.