Attitudes towards travel mode choice have been regarded as bi-polar evaluations of travel options that remain stable across time and context. Intra-personal attitudes can be variable, becoming more or less salient and changing in strength or valence across decisional contexts. This study draws on theoretical underpinnings of attitudinal ambivalence, which proposes that a person can hold two-dimensional (negative and positive) evaluations about one attitude object simultaneously. The present research aimed to explore attitudinal ambivalence in relation to travel modes and examine the variability of attitudes in different contexts. Thirty semi-structured interviews explored above-average mileage car users' (n = 15) and non-car users' (n = 15) experiences of attitudinal ambivalence in relation to various transport modes and under which circumstances. Thematic analysis found support for attitudinal ambivalence and contextdependent attitude variability in relation to travel mode evaluations. Discussions of an a priori questionnaire confirmed the malleability of transport-relevant attitudes. Transport-relevant attitudes are complex and ambivalent. Attitudinal ambivalence and context-dependent attitude variability has implications for transport research design, interventions targeting travel-related attitudes and policies aimed to reduce single-occupancy driving.

This chapter discusses key methodological issues involved in researching potential Plug-in Electric Vehicle (PEV) uptake among mainstream consumers: all those who are not Innovators in terms of Rogers' (Diffusion of innovations. Free Press, New York, 2003) diffusion model. In the U.K. in 2019 mainstream consumers do not have their own PEVs and have little or no direct experience of using them. Issues considered in this chapter include the problems of psychological distance, the Hawthorne effect, the "Bed of Procrustes", and the role of symbolic meaning and self-congruity in influencing uptake. Two studies that have worked with mainstream consumer samples, one qualitative and one quantitative, are described in depth to illustrate how these issues can be addressed.

Encouraging the purchase of low-emission vehicles could reduce the environmental impact of growing global car ownership. To date, however, there is relatively little research into the degree to which environmental features, such as reduced CO2 emissions, are considered important when reflecting on car purchase decisions using large representative samples. This issue was explored using data from wave four (2013/14) of the UK Household Longitudinal Study, weighted to be representative of the UK population (N = 12,895). Principal components analysis identified three types of considerations during car purchase reflections: Utilitarian, Image-conscious and Environmental. Logistic and Ordinary Least Squares regressions identified attitudinal, behavioural and sociodemographic predictors of reporting environmental considerations during car purchase. Consideration of environmental factors during reflections on car purchases was more likely among those with higher climate change concerns and topic engagement, as well as self-reported pro-environmental behaviours more generally. Environmental considerations were also higher amongst women, older adults, non-white ethnic groups, urban residents and among individuals in Scotland (vs. London). Contrary to previous findings, richer and more educated respondents were less likely to consider environmental factors, with income positively related to image factors such as brand. Although our findings offer some support for the pro-environmental attitude-behaviour consistency hypothesis, they also highlight key non-attitudinal, sociodemographic factors underlying car purchase reflections that may help social-marketers and policy makers identify key audiences to more effectively promote low-emission vehicle purchases. (C) 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Adoption of Plug-in Vehicles (PiVs) by fleets could have a substantial impact on national energy systems. We carried out four in-depth case studies with U.K. fleets that had not yet adopted PiVs to investigate what influences their vehicle selection decisions, and what their potential charging profiles would be if they adopted PiVs. The case studies involved us carrying out interviews with staff in a variety of roles at different levels within each organisation. We found that operational suitability and costs of ownership were the most important vehicle selection considerations. Provision of charging facilities at employees' homes was seen as a major barrier to PiV adoption by van fleets, as were government contract regulations applying to contractors working for public sector clients. In car fleets where users chose their own vehicles, those choices were made at the personal level, but constrained by criteria imposed by the organisation. The range of vehicle options for users reflected corporate goals such as providing employee benefits, and also corporate views of personal-level symbolic motivations for car choice. PiVs were not considered to reflect such motivations so were not offered as options. Home-based fleet PiVs are likely to be charged mainly in the evenings and overnight, since in the daytime they are in use on company business. In conclusion home-based fleet PiVs may contribute to the early evening electricity demand peak; but there appear to be additional barriers to PiV adoption by fleets that may limit their overall impact on the U.K. energy system.

Widespread adoption of Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) would add substantially to overall electricity demand, while increasing deployment of renewable supply sources will make supply-demand balancing more difficult. Early PEV market experience suggests that users preferentially charge their vehicles in the early evening, when other demands are high. Managed (or Smart) charging aims to shift PEV charging load to times when other demands are low, to facilitate better integration into the wider energy system, operation within network constraints, and minimisation of future network reinforcement costs. However, material effectiveness would require mass engagement with managed charging. To gain initial insight into the potential for managed charging, 60 semi-structured interviews were carried out with actual or potential UK PEV users. Interviews explored present charging behaviour and responses to two types of managed charging schemes, user-managed charging (UMC) based on time-of-use tariffs, and supplier-managed charging (SMC). Participants' willingness to engage with either was conditional on large reductions in charging costs. UMC was preferred over SMC, because of perceived personal control and lower perceived risk that a vehicle might not be fully charged at the required time. Preference for SMC was based mainly on perceived advantages to society as a whole.

Overreliance on motorised travel modes aggravates existing problems of public obesity and global climate change. However, travel mode choices are often habitual, and habits are difficult to break, as automatic responses to stable-contexts learnt through repetition. One approach is to destabilise the stable-contexts that cue travel habits. Such an opportunity could arise when people move-house, so we predicted that the travel mode choices and habits of university students would change, without a behaviour change intervention, when they moved-house between academic terms. University students (N = 250) completed two questionnaires, around 5.5 months apart, between new academic years; 153 students moved-house ("movers"). As predicted when movers changed their travel mode choices, their new choices became more automatic and their old choices less automatic. Mover's travel changes were planned prior to moving-house, however there was insufficient evidence that either changes in the social context or activated values were related to travel changes. We discuss these findings with respect to acquiring habits and the habit discontinuity and self-activation hypotheses (Verplanken, Walker, Davis, & Jurasek, 2008) and the advantages of student house-hunting as a 'window of opportunity' for establish new travel habits amongst university students. (C) 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Human and environmental health are important globally. Reduced car use could improve human health by promoting physical activity and consequent decreases in carbon dioxide emissions would help achieve greenhouse gas emissions targets. The aim of this study was to explore how travellers evaluate seven transport choices. We compared the evaluative spaces of two distinct groups of transport users: predominantly non-car users and above-average mileage car users. The Repertory Grid technique was used to elicit 448 constructs from 15 non-car users and 15 high-mileage car users. Thematic analysis, content analysis, cluster analysis, analysis of means and principal component analysis were used to identify similarities and differences between the construct systems. Results revealed that non-car users and high-mileage car users apply broadly similar constructs to evaluate transport modes. They differ, however, in the structure of their construct systems. Both groups share constructs related to time and route flexibility. Effects on the environment and benefits of physical activity were important for non-car users but not for high-mileage car users. Non-car users view travel modes with greater differentiation, while high-mileage car users use a looser construal of travel modes. We discuss implications for future intervention design and ramifications for policy and practice.

Personal car use is increasing globally and is an important contributor to poor air quality and global greenhouse gas emissions. Although individuals have little direct control over some emission sources (e.g. heavy industry), they can modify their car use thereby reducing their own contribution. There have been many attempts to understand the psychology of personal car use and identify ways in which individuals might be encouraged to adopt more environmentally friendly travel modes. The aims of this study were (1) to review available psychological theories and models and their applications to understanding car use, (2) to assess the quality of empirical tests of relevant theories and (3) to develop an integrated conceptual overview of potentially modifiable antecedents that could inform future intervention design and further theoretical research. Fifteen psychological theories were identified from thirty-two unique studies but most theories were applied only once. Although two theories in particular (the Comprehensive Action Determination Model and Stage Model of Self-Regulated Behaviour Change) are both relatively comprehensive and have empirical support, our review suggests there are mechanisms of behavioural regulation relevant to car use that are not included in either theory. Integrating theories, we developed an integrative conceptual framework, referred to as the CAr USE (or CAUSE) framework of cognitive and emotional antecedents of car use. This framework is likely to be applicable to other ecologically-relevant behaviour patterns. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Reduced private car use can limit greenhouse gas emissions and improve public health. It is unclear, however, how promotion of alternative transport choices can be optimised. A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to identify potentially modifiable cognitive mechanisms that have been related to car use and use of alternative transport modes. A qualitative synthesis of measures of potentially modifiable mechanisms based on 43 studies yielded 26 conceptually distinct mechanism categories. Meta-analyses of associations between these mechanisms and car use/non-use generated 205 effects sizes (Pearson's r) from 35 studies. The strongest correlates of car use were intentions, perceived behavioural control, attitudes and habit. The strongest correlates of alternative transportation choices were intentions, perceived behavioural control and attitudes. Implications for researchers and policy implementation are discussed.

Uptake of electric vehicles (EVs) by consumers could reduce CO2 emissions from light duty road transport, but little is known about how mass-market consumer drivers will respond to them. Self-Congruity theory proposes that products are preferred whose symbolic meanings are congruent with personal identity. Further, Construal Level theory suggests that only those who are psychologically close to a new product category through direct experience with it can make concrete construals related to their lifestyles; most drivers lack this for EVs. For instance, potential performance benefits of EVs might offset range limitations for consumers who have such direct experience. The effect of direct experience was tested in a randomised controlled trial with 393 mass-market consumer drivers. An experimental group were given direct experience of a modern battery electric vehicle (BEV), and a control group an equivalent conventional car. Despite rating the performance of the BEV more highly than that of the conventional car, willingness to consider a BEV declined after experience, particularly if the range of the BEV considered was short. The participants willing to consider a short-range BEV were those high in self-congruity, for whom the BEV could act as a strong sytnbol of personal identity. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

OBJECTIVES:To explore the relationships between commute mode, neighbourhood public transport connectivity and subjective wellbeing. METHOD:The study used data on 3630 commuters in London from wave two of Understanding Society (2010/11). Multivariate linear regressions were used to investigate how commute mode and neighbourhood public transport connectivity were associated with subjective wellbeing for all London commuters and for public transport commuters only. Subjective wellbeing was operationalized in terms of both a positive expression (life satisfaction measured by a global single-item question) and a more negative expression (mental distress measured by the General Health Questionnaire). Logistic regression was also used to explore the predictors of public transport over non-public transport commutes. RESULTS:After accounting for potentially-confounding area-level and individual-level socioeconomic and commute-related variables, only walking commutes (but not other modes) were associated with significantly higher life satisfaction than car use but not with lower mental distress, compared to driving. While better public transport connectivity was associated with significantly lower mental distress in general, train users with better connectivity had higher levels of mental distress. Moreover, connectivity was unrelated to likelihood of using public transport for commuting. Instead, public transport commutes were more likely amongst younger commuters who made longer distance commutes and had comparatively fewer children and cars within the household. CONCLUSION:The findings highlight the heterogeneity of relationships between commute mode, public transport connectivity and subjective wellbeing and have implications for intervention strategies and policies designed to promote commuting behaviour change.

The study explored the relationship between commuting modes and psychological wellbeing (PW) in 2,756 London commuters from wave two of the UK Household Longitudinal Study (2010/2011). Independent-samples t-test revealed significantly higher PW scores in outer- (M = 6.96, SD = 8.80) than inner-Londoners, M = 4.23, SD = 9.83; t (2754) = -7.67, p < .001. Chi-square tests for independence indicated significant commute differences. Comparatively, inner-Londoners reported more active (χ2 [1, n = 2,756] = 31.94, p < .001) and public transport (χ2 [1, n = 2,756] = 52.43, p < .001) travel, and lesser car use (χ2 [1, n = 2,756] = 141.88, p < .001). Multiple hierarchical regressions revealed that active commute (R2 change = .006, F change (1, 1050) = 7.04, p < .01) in inner London was positively associated with PW, whilst the same is true for driving (R2 change = .004, F change (1, 1524) = 6.08, p < .05) and public transport (R2 change = .005, F change (1, 1524) = 7.24, p < .01) commute in out London. These findings suggest that commuters' PW could potentially be improved through commuting modifications.

Promoting non-car-mode travel has potential to contribute to reduced sedentary behaviour and the risk of respiratory health issues. But it is unclear how best to promote these alternatives. Psychological antecedents of non-car travel and switching from car to non-car use have been modelled. Qualitative investigation of these antecedents can highlight change processes and instability of psychological antecedents, including attitudes. We explored variability of transport attitudes in response to different personal goals, considering a range of transport modes. Laddering interviews were conducted with three distinct transport mode users to investigate underlying hierarchical goal and value structures. Comparison of drivers and non-drivers identified differences regarding physical activity, environment and social relationships. Results highlight that travel model attitudes are changeable and sensitive to prompted goals, showing that people’s view of non-car mode transport may change over time and place. These insights imply that different communicative strategies can be effective for different people under different circumstances. The findings have implications both for future attitude measurement and intervention design.

Electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as potentially important contenders as low carbon vehicles. However from the perspectives of consumer (non-commercial) drivers, all types of EVs have limitations such as short range and higher cost that are significant barriers to widespread uptake. To displace a significant fraction of conventional vehicles, they may need to offer consumer drivers specific advantages that offset these limitations. Better performance might be such an advantage, since electric powertrains can offer performance benefits such as quieter operation and higher torque at low speeds. This qualitative study explored how vehicle performance is construed by consumer drivers, using a repertory grid approach to elicit drivers' personal constructs. Drivers were found to construe performance in terms of two main dimensions, both situationally specific: dynamic performance (involving acceleration, power, and responsiveness during pulling away, overtaking and hill climbs) and cruising performance (involving smoothness and low noise, during high speed cruising on highways). Users of gasoline fuelled cars emphasised dynamic performance more than did users of diesel fuelled cars, but the opposite was the case for cruising performance. A conceptual model based on the findings could help focus design efforts on those aspects of performance that are most directly salient to drivers. (C) 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Background Driving is a sedentary behaviour and car emissions a respiratory health issue. Consequently, promoting non-car travel mode choices has potential to enhance population health. Social cognition models, involving attitudes have been important to psychological research in personal travel. This review appraises transportation research and questions the adequacy of conceptualisations of “attitude”. Method This study systematically and critically reviews current models, synthesising both, qualitative and quantitative research. A two-stage systematic search structured by the PICO framework was undertaken and accessed EBSCO, Web-of-Science and ScienceDirect. Finding A critical perspective on attitude constructs and their measurement integrated goal and control theory into understanding travel mode choice. We question the assumption that travel mode attitudes are stable across contexts and propose that they are shaped by goal priorities. Discussion Development of a more context-sensitive conceptualisation of travel-mode of modifiable determinants of transport-choice cognitions has implications for the design of interventions to reduce car use and the promotion of healthier travel.

There is increasing interest in understanding and achieving changes in travel behaviour, but a focus on individual behaviour change may overlook the potential for achieving change via transformation at the levels of institutions, cultures and societies the domains of sociological inquiry. In this paper, we review sociological contributions to the literature on travel and 'mobilities'. We summarise four key themes which supplement or contradict arguments made in mainstream transport debates on behaviour change. The first involves focusing on travel 'practices' as social entities with dynamics of their own, rather than on individual behaviours. The second relates to the changing natures of societies, and the implications for travel. The third explores and interprets the issue of car dependence in ways which highlight the ethical, experiential and emotional dimensions associated with car use, its symbolic role in societies increasingly concerned with consumption, and its differing roles within different cultures. Finally, the 'new mobilities paradigm' highlights issues such as the increasing links between travel and new technologies, and the primacy of social networks in influencing travel decisions. These themes emphasise the importance of understanding the broader contexts in which travel choices are made. In particular, the implication is that the creation of more sustainable travel patterns will require changes at a range of social levels, not simply in individual behaviours, and that changes to transport will inevitably be linked with, and influenced by, broader changes in the values and practices developed by societies as a whole. (C) 2014 Transport Research Laboratory. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

We investigate the roles of social influence in the formation of consumer perceptions and preferences for pro-environmental technologies, using the example of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). The context was a technology-based workplace in the U.K. with around 500 members of staff, 57 of whom took part in a BEV experience project in 2010. Several months later, we recruited a diverse sample of 21 staff to complete semi-structured interviews. Following a multi-method approach, we elicited details about their perceptions and valuation of BEVs, experiences with BEVs, and social interactions relating to BEVs. Participants reported a wide variety of perceptions of BEV attributes, including environmental benefits and functional drawbacks. The majority of participants indicated that their BEV perceptions were “highly influenced” by at least one social interaction. We use the reflexive layers of influence conceptual framework to categorize social influence according to three processes: diffusion, the sharing of BEV-related information; translation, the discussion of uncertain BEV benefits and drawbacks; and reflexivity, the relating of BEV technology to self-concept. Findings suggest that participant perceptions change in part through social negotiation of meaning, lifestyle and identity. Neglect of social influence processes will underestimate the potential for shifts in consumer preferences regarding emerging pro-environmental technologies.

The aim is to understand how private car drivers’ perception of vehicle attributes may affect their intention to adopt electric vehicles (EVs). Data are obtained from a national online survey of potential EV adopters in the UK. The results indicate that instrumental attributes are important largely because they are associated with other attributes derived from owning and using EVs, including pleasure of driving (hedonic attributes) and identity derived from owning and using EVs (symbolic attributes). People who believe that a proenvironmental self-identity fits with their self-image are more likely to have positive perceptions of EV attributes. Perceptions of EV attributes are only very weakly associated with car-authority identity.