Algal blooms of the dinoflagellate Karenia mikimotoi are seriously threats to the coastal ecosystems, particularly in developing countries. Many previous studies have focused on the effect of nutrients on algal blooms, but the accurate measurement of nutrients can be time-consuming, particularly in remote areas. Currently, the environmental drivers of K. mikimotoi proliferation are far from clearly understood in many coastal zones in the world. As a result of prevailing climate conditions and increasing eutrophication, the Pingtan Special Bay Area in China is prone to frequent red tide events. Based on field work conducted from 2013 to 2019, this study investigated the meteorological and hydrological variables influencing the proliferation of K. mikimotoi . Results showed that cell density of K. mikimotoi was significantly positively correlated with sea surface temperature (SST), air temperature (AT), and dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration, but negatively correlated with sea surface salinity (SSS) and air pressure (AP). A linear model between cell density and SST, SSS, AP, and DO was developed to assess and predict the risk of K. mikimotoi algal blooms ( R 2 = 0.810). Results are of practical significance for preventing and controlling the K. mikimotoi algal bloom in Southeast China. Furthermore, this proposed algal bloom prediction method based on the Linear Regression Model may potentially serve as a valuable reference for algal bloom risk forecasting and management.

Notre étude taxonomique entre mars 2014 et novembre 2015 le long de la côte atlantique entre Casablanca et El Jadida a permis de déceler une flore phytoplanctonique représentée par les Diatomées, Dinoflagellés, Silicoflagellés et Euglenophycées avec une nette dominance des Diatomées et des Dinoflagellés. Au total, 101 taxons d’algues planctoniques ont été identifiés, témoignant d’une taxocénose relativement diversifiée. Dans cet ensemble, les Diatomées sont représentées par 62 taxons (61,4 %), les Dinoflagellés par 36 taxa (35,6 %) et les deux autres groupes (Silicoflagellés et Euglénophycées) ne sont représentés que par 3 espèces seulement (3,0 %). En ce qui concerne les espèces potentiellement toxiques, plus d’une quinzaine de taxons ont été identifiés dont la plupart sont des Dinoflagellés et des Diatomées (Pseudo-nitzschia australis et Pseudo-nitzschia cuspidata). L’analyse de l’évolution spatiotemporelle des indices de diversité (H’) et d’équitabilité (E) révèle des fluctuations saisonnières prononcées sans montrer, pour autant, une grande analogie entre les différents sites prospectés. Par ailleurs, les densités phytoplanctoniques totales présentent de grandes variations à la fois spatiales et temporelles (sur les deux cycles annuels). La présence de proliférations massives de certaines espèces potentiellement toxiques (Pseudo-nitzschia australis et Pseudo-nitzschia cuspidata, Lingulodinium polyedrum, Karenia mikimotoi), d’une nouvelle espèce de Dinoflagellé ectoparasite pour le Maroc (Amyloodinium ocellatum) et d’autres espèces opportunistes (Eutreptiella, Thalassiosira, Prorocentrum scutellum) a été notée au cours de cette étude. La détection des espèces potentiellement toxiques, parfois à des concentrations alarmantes, devrait inciter les autorités compétentes à élargir le spectre et la fréquence de biosurveillance aux sites non contrôlés.

Our taxonomic study from March 2014 to November 2015 along the atlantic coast between Casablanca and El Jadida revealed that phytoplanktonic structure is mainly represented by Diatoms (Bacillariophyceae), Dinoflagellates (Dinophyceae), Silicoflagellates (Dictyophyceae) and Euglenophyceae with a clear dominance of Diatoms and Dinoflagellates. A total of 101 taxa of planktonic algae have been identified revealing a relatively diversified taxocenosis. In terms of respective diversity, the Diatoms are represented by 62 taxa (61.4%), the Dinoflagellates by 36 taxa (35.6%) whereas the other two groups of Silicoflagellates and Euglenophyceae are only represented by 3 species (3.0%). Regarding potentially toxic species, more than fifteen taxa have been identified, most of which were Dinoflagellates and Diatoms (Pseudo-nitzschia australis and Pseudo-nitzschia cuspidata). The total phytoplankton densities exhibited great spatial and temporal variations as shown by analyses of diversity (H') and equitability (E) indices at the different coast sites investigated throughout the 2014-2015 years. Massive proliferation of some toxic species (e.g. Pseudo-nitzschia australis and Pseudo-nitzschia cuspidata, Lingulodinium polyedrum, Karenia mikimotoi) was also noticed. In addition, our study revealed the presence of opportunistic species (e.g. Eutreptiella, Thalassiosira, Prorocentrum scutellum) and of the new ectoparasite Dinoflagellate Amyloodinium ocellatum for the first time in Morocco. The detection of such diversity of toxic species, sometimes with alarming concentrations, should prompt the competent authorities to broaden the spectrum and frequency of biomonitoring to uncontrolled seafood harvesting sites.

The purple hinged rock scallop, Crassadoma gigantea (Gray 1825), is a species of interest for commercial-scale aquaculture in its native range, along the Pacific coast of North America from Baja California, Mexico to southeastern Alaska. One serious, unresolved issue, however, is the lack of information on uptake, retention, and depuration of algal biotoxins in this species. It is known that rock scallops can retain high levels of paralytic shellfish toxins (PST), including saxitoxin and derivatives, within its tissues including the adductor muscle. Paralytic shellfish toxins can pose serious public health risks, including paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), which can be lethal in humans. Diarrhetic shellfish toxins (DST) produced by algal species within the genus Dinophysis spp. is another suite of marine biotoxins monitored by public health agencies, known to cause diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) in humans. This is the first study to investigate dynamics of Dinophysis spp., and DST in the rock scallop. The present study examined uptake, retention, and depuration of two common toxic algal species and associated biotoxins in Puget Sound, WA: Alexandrium catenella (PST) and Dinophysis spp. (DST), through multiyear field exposures and controlled laboratory studies. Assessment of PST in rock scallop tissues by receptor binding assay from field and laboratory studies revealed very high and persistent levels of PST in visceral tissue and also PST in adductor muscle tissue beyond the FDA limit (80 mu g STX equivalents 100 g-1 shellfish tissue) for safe shellfish consumption. An estimate of total depuration time of PST in rock scallop viscera was inconclusive, indicating potentially long depuration times for this species. Toxicity levels varied among individuals of the same cohort, size class, collection time, and location for both visceral and adductor muscle tissues. Laboratory results showed PST levels beyond the FDA limit within adductor muscle tissue during a 6-wk depuration period, indicating a shucked, adductor-only product for this species will require careful testing and management to ensure rock scallops are safe for consumption. More research is needed to decouple the complex interactions of Dinophysis spp., DST, water quality, and rock scallop physiology to inform shellfish managers and public health agencies reliably.

Distribution and carbon biomass of planktonic foraminifera were investigated from the euphotic zone of the Eastern Indian Ocean during a two-month cruise, ‘Shiyan I’ (10 April–13 May 2014). Foraminifera species were collected through plankton net sampling at 44 locations (80.00°–96.10° E, 10.08° N–6.00° S). The temperature (°C) ranged between 12.82 and 31.8 °C, the salinity ranged between 32.5 and 35.5, and chlorophyll-a concentrations ranged between 0.005 µg/L and 0.89 µg/L. A total of 20 taxa were identified based on the spherical chamber shell, spines, and a final whorl which were examined under light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Dominant species that were characterized by the high dominant index Y > 0.14–0.46 were Globigerina bulloides, Globigerinoides ruber white, Globigerinella siphonifera, Turborotalita quinqueloba, and Globigerinella calida, contributing to the community up to 86%. The shell size of collected taxa was from 51 to 508 μm and the total carbon biomass was estimated to be between 0.062 µg C m–3 and 26.52 µg C m–3. The high carbon biomass was recorded at two stations in the equator zone. Due to its large size, Globorotalia menardii had total carbon biomass of 3.9 µg C m–3, followed by G. calida 0.68 µg C m−3, Trilobatus sacculifer 0.38 µg C m–3, Orbulina universa 0.56 µg C m–3, and G. ruber white 0.22 µg C m–3, respectively. The Pearson correlation analysis showed that the temperature and chlorophyll-a were two explanatory environmental variables that were found to be highly significant (p < 0.05) and that triggered the distribution and abundance of dominant foraminifera species in the study region. Overall, high abundances and carbon biomass were derived from the euphotic zone and equatorial region of the Eastern Indian Ocean.

Siliceous planktonic species of the phyla Retaria and Cercozoa were investigated from the surface to a 200 m depth around the eastern Indian Ocean (80.00°–96.10° E, 10.08° N–6.00° S) during a 2-month cruise (10 April–13 May 2014). These species are commonly referred to as Radiolarians and are found in all of the world’s oceans; however, this is a detailed investigation of the species’ diversity in the eastern Indian Ocean. Samples were collected from the eastern Indian Ocean using a plankton towing net during a vertical haul from 44 sampling stations, which resulted in 168 taxa, including 60 species that were newly recorded in the study area. The main purpose of this work was to identify members of the phyla Retaria and Cercozoa and their distribution in the eastern Indian Ocean. The species’ morphology, identification, notes, and new geographical records are briefly described.

Objective: The lungs are uniquely exposed to the external environment. Sand and dust exposures in desert regions are common among deployed soldiers. A significant number of Veterans deployed to the Middle East report development of respiratory disorders and diseases.Materials and methods: Sand collected from Fallujah, Iraq and Kandahar, Afghanistan combat zones was analyzed and compared to a sand sample collected from an historic United States (U.S.) battle region (Fort Johnson, James Island, SC, Civil War battle site). Sand samples were analyzed to determine the physical and elemental characteristics that may have the potential to contribute to development of respiratory disease.Results: Using complementary scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging and analysis, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), it was determined that Iraq sand contained elevated levels of calcium and first row transition metals versus Afghanistan and U.S. sand. Iraq sand particle texture was smooth and round, and particles were considerably smaller than Afghanistan sand. Afghanistan sand was elevated in rare earth metals versus Iraq or U.S. sands and had sharp edge features and larger particle size than Iraq sand.Conclusions: These data demonstrate significant differences in Iraq and Afghanistan sand particle size and characteristics. Middle East sands contained elevated levels of elements that have been associated with respiratory disease versus control site sand, suggesting the potential of sand/dust storm exposure to promote adverse respiratory symptoms. Data also demonstrate the potential for variation based on geographical region or site of exposure. The data generated provide baseline information that will be valuable in designing future exposure studies.

Marine biotoxin-contaminated seafood has caused thousands of poisonings worldwide this century. Given these threats, there is an increasing need for improved technologies that can be easily integrated into coastal monitoring programs. This study evaluates approaches for monitoring toxins associated with recurrent toxin-producing Alexandrium and Dinophysis blooms on Long Island, NY, USA, which cause paralytic and diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (PSP and DSP), respectively. Within contrasting locations, the dynamics of pelagic Alexandrium and Dinophysis cell densities, toxins in plankton, and toxins in deployed blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) were compared with passive solid-phase adsorption toxin tracking (SPATT) samplers filled with two types of resin, HP20 and XAD-2. Multiple species of wild shellfish were also collected during Dinophysis blooms and used to compare toxin content using two different extraction techniques (single dispersive and double exhaustive) and two different toxin analysis assays (liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry and the protein phosphatase inhibition assay (PP2A)) for the measurement of DSP toxins. DSP toxins measured in the HP20 resin were significantly correlated (R2 = 0.7–0.9, p < 0.001) with total DSP toxins in shellfish, but were detected more than three weeks prior to detection in deployed mussels. Both resins adsorbed measurable levels of PSP toxins, but neither quantitatively tracked Alexandrium cell densities, toxicity in plankton or toxins in shellfish. DSP extraction and toxin analysis methods did not differ significantly (p > 0.05), were highly correlated (R2 = 0.98–0.99; p < 0.001) and provided complete recovery of DSP toxins from standard reference materials. Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) and ribbed mussels (Geukensia demissa) were found to accumulate DSP toxins above federal and international standards (160 ng g−1) during Dinophysis blooms while Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) and soft shell clams (Mya arenaria) did not. This study demonstrated that SPATT samplers using HP20 resin coupled with PP2A technology could be used to provide early warning of DSP, but not PSP, events for shellfish management.

Isolating and perpetuating cultures of harmful algal species is not fundamentally different than doing so for nonharmful taxa. This chapter provides guidance on early steps in the sequence of sampling, locating, perpetuating, and isolating an organism in a natural body of water. The two most common reasons for sampling a body of water for harmful microalgal taxa are: suspicion that a harmful organism is present, or curiosity about the possibility that harmful taxa may be present. The chapter identifies issues to be considered for successful perpetuation of harmful algal isolates. It argues that the knowledge, skills, and experience of a specialist should be mobilized as soon as possible in projects involving high-profile blooms that affect public and environmental health. The chapter highlights special precautions that should be observed with harmful algal bloom (HAB) taxa. Perhaps the most difficult aspect of perpetuating cultures of some HAB microalgae involves sexual reproduction, especially in dinoflagellates and diatoms.

This chapter outlines existing educational and outreach materials, and highlights projects that might be used as case studies to educate the public regarding harmful algal blooms (HAB). The "Scope and Sequence" provides educators with guidance as to what students need to comprehend in grades K-2, grades 3-5, grades 6-8, and grades 9-12 in order to achieve full understanding of the Essential Principles. Web-based education has become a very important branch of educational technology. For learners, it provides access to information and knowledge sources that are practically unlimited, enabling a number of opportunities for personalized learning, tele-learning, distance learning, and collaboration, with the clear advantages of classroom and platform independence. Citizen science and crowdsourcing projects are powerful tools for providing students with skills needed to excel in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM).

This fact sheet presents information on distribution, toxicity and morphology for the following harmful algal species: Ceratium furca.

This study confirms the presence of the toxigenic benthic dinoflagellates Gambierdiscus belizeanus and Ostreopsis spp. in the central Red Sea. To our knowledge, this is also the first report of these taxa in coastal waters of Saudi Arabia, indicating the potential occurrence of ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) in that region. During field investigations carried out in 2012 and 2013, a total of 100 Turbinaria and Halimeda macroalgae samples were collected from coral reefs off the Saudi Arabian coast and examined for the presence of Gambierdiscus and Ostreopsis, two toxigenic dinoflagellate genera commonly observed in coral reef communities around the world. Both Gambierdiscus and Ostreopsis spp. were observed at low densities (<200 cells g-1 wet weight algae). Cell densities of Ostreopsis spp. were significantly higher than Gambierdiscus spp. at most of the sampling sites, and abundances of both genera were negatively correlated with seawater salinity. To assess the potential for ciguatoxicity in this region, several Gambierdiscus isolates were established in culture and examined for species identity and toxicity. All isolates were morphologically and molecularly identified as Gambierdiscus belizeanus. Toxicity analysis of two isolates using the mouse neuroblastoma cell-based assay for ciguatoxins (CTX) confirmed G. belizeanus as a CTX producer, with a maximum toxin content of 6.50±1.14×10-5pg P-CTX-1 eq. cell-1. Compared to Gambierdiscus isolates from other locations, these were low toxicity strains. The low Gambierdiscus densities observed along with their comparatively low toxin contents may explain why CFP is unidentified and unreported in this region. Nevertheless, the presence of these potentially toxigenic dinoflagellate species at multiple sites in the central Red Sea warrants future study on their possible effects on marine food webs and human health in this region.

The summer season brings surges in outdoor recreational activities each year, with increased visitor attendance to National Parks and protected areas and annual peaks in fishing and swimming in many rivers, lakes, and beaches. The warmer months routinely bring field sampling campaigns for environmental scientists, time for academics to catch up following final exams, and vacations with family or friends. Unfortunately, headlines in North America during summer 2016 reminded us that the incidence of harmful algal blooms (HABs), particularly of cyanobacteria, also tends to increase in summer months and cause impairment to inland recreational waterbodies. In addition to the highly publicized issues in Lake Erie and the HAB event stretching hundreds of miles in the Ohio River, other inland water bodies were impacted by HABs from the east to west coasts of the United States. A state of emergency was declared in 4 Florida counties, Utah closed access to Utah Lake, and California responded to multiple HAB events from the southern to northern parts of the state. Similarly, HABs severely impacted water quality of inland systems in many other regions of the world [1] These highly publicized examples of HAB impacts on water resources highlight the need for robust data for HAB toxins from environmental surveillance andmonitoring programs to identify the prevalence and severity of such problems and thus achieve management goals of reducingHAB risks to public health and to the environment. These programs in turn are critical to ensure effectiveness of management efforts and to support decisionmaking by resource managers, particularly when HAB events affect public health and economies buoyed by tourism. Earlier in 2016 [1] we considered a seemingly simple question: Are HABs becoming the greatest threat to inland water quality? We specifically identified research needs associated with global environmental assessment and management of HAB impacts to water quality. For example, although monitoring activities for HABs in inland waters are ongoing in a number of locations [2], these activities are not occurring in all states, tribes, and territories of the United States and another countries; are haphazardly coordinated; and almost never evaluate the full suite of potential HAB impacts to terrestrial and aquatic habitats. In fact, monitoring activities, if they occur, are routinely limited to microscope-based evaluation of some algae or chlorophyll a as a result of limited resources available for more sophisticated instrumental analyses, training programs for practitioners, and environmental monitoring in general. Such microscopic observations cannot identify the presence of toxins during field assessments, if they are performed, and rarely examine picoplankton; then they are simply compared to HAB thresholds for algal cell density (e.g., from the World Health Organization [3]). Other efforts employ molecular tools (e.g., quantitative polymerase chain reaction) and remote sensing to identify water bodies more likely to present risks to surface waters. Microscope and satellite-based (including light detection and ranging, or LIDAR) monitoring efforts are critical and must be greatly expanded; however, these approaches fail to determine whether algal toxins are present and subsequently increase the possibility that an impaired water quality situation will be missed that would compromise aquatic organisms and associated aquatic life uses, recreational andcommercial/sportfishing, and swimming activities. For example, the biologically active chemicals produced by different Cylindrospermospis raciborskii morphotypes, which vary across the Americas and environmental gradients, are generally not well understood [4]. Unfortunately, water quality criteria donot exist for algal toxins inmanycountries, including the United States, although some efforts are underway to derive aquatic species sensitivity distributions for some of these toxins and the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) is developing recreational ambient water quality criteria for some cyanotoxins. Following a review by the US Government Accountability Office in 2014 [5], the USEPA’s Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR 4) for Public Water Systems was revised to include 10 toxins produced by various cyanobacteria [6]. Monitoring efforts like this are beneficial for understanding the extent of algal toxins present andwill proceed to examine select potable water systems over the next few years. Similar efforts are absent in most of the world, particularly in developing countries.

*Corresponding author: Sonia Munir, Marine Science and Engineering Department, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China; Centre of Excellence in Marine Biology, University of Karachi, 75270 Karachi, Pakistan. Tel: +86 18622638932 E-mail: soniaku2003@yahoo.com Foundation Project: Supported by international fellowship (International Research support of inititive program, IRSIP7-BMS-08), from HEC, Islamabad to Dr. Sonia Munir to work in USA. The journal implements double-blind peer review practiced by specially invited international editorial board members.