The increasing economic losses attributed to earthquakes underscore the urgent need for a proactive financial strategy that accounts for earthquake-related losses in high-risk areas. Disaster risk financing mechanisms, such as parametric risk transfer instruments, e.g., catastrophe bonds (Cat Bonds), provide an effective approach to risk management by shifting financial exposure from government entities to capital markets. In this study, the relationships between earthquake parameters and economic losses in Israel’s Hula–Kinneret Basin are investigated, and they are compared with those in three other seismic zones: Arava, Aragones, and Arnon–Dakar. We propose a methodology to evaluate how the moment magnitude, epicenter location, and fault depth affect economic losses. Our results indicate that economic losses typically remain below the government biannual reserve (IBR) threshold of approximately USD 0.5 billion (in 2020), although further examination of broader financial risk management implications is warranted. We find that only earthquakes Mw≥ 6.5 necessitate consideration of the epicenter location and fault depth, as their influence on overall losses increases with magnitude. Additionally, moderate to strong earthquakes can impact distant, densely populated areas. The significance of fault location decreases when the epicenter does not substantially affect economic loss. To address these findings, we recommend a two-tiered disaster risk transfer strategy: one for low- to moderate-magnitude earthquakes (Mw < 6.5 ), which considers only magnitude and depth, and another for larger events (Mw ≥ 6.5 ), which incorporates all relevant physical parameters. This framework can be applied in other seismic regions, enhancing preparedness and resilience against earthquake-related economic impacts.

Fault zones, with their dense networks of fractures and microfractures, often serve as primary pathways for fluid migration. However, their role as conduits or barriers depends on their development stages. Previous studies on the fluid transport properties of fault zones have primarily relied on permeability measurements, microstructural analyses and numerical simulations. In this study, magnetic measurements were conducted on the fault rocks from the Middle Valley Fault (MVF) of the Red River Fault (RRF) system, supplemented by scanning electron microscope observations. Results show that the protoliths are dominated by paramagnetic pyrite, while weakly paramagnetic siderite and ferrimagnetic magnetite are unevenly distributed across the fault zone. Along with the widespread presence of barite, this suggests that hydrothermal fluids have circulated within the fault zone. The healing effects of these fluids, coupled with the enrichment of clay minerals, significantly reduce the permeability of the fault gouge. Consequently, the similar to 90-cm-thick fault gouge zone acts as a barrier, inhibiting fluid migration across the fault zone. Fluid-rock interactions varied across fault compartments, producing diverse magnetic assemblages in the fault rocks. Moreover, integrating outcrop-scale and microstructural observations with relevant geological data, this reveals that the MVF has undergone at least three tectonic events since the Paleogene, with hydrothermal fluids transitioning from sulfate-dominated during the Paleogene and early Neogene to CO2-rich since the Neogene. These findings provide unique insights into the evolutionary history and contemporary deformation of the RRF system and offer a novel magnetic perspective for studying fluid migration in fault zones.

Shallow crustal faulting involves complex processes, including brittle and ductile deformation, frictional heating, and fluid interaction, which may all leave distinct geological signatures. However, deciphering these mechanisms is challenging. This study investigates the deformation near two faults in northern Israel: the active Nahef East fault and the Qiryat Shemona fault, a major strand of the Dead Sea Fault (DSF) system, both cutting through diamagnetic carbonate rocks. We employ a range of methods, including anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS), magnetic properties, electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), and geochemical analyses to target specific faulting processes. Both faults exhibit magnetic fabrics with foliations formed by AMS maximum (K-1) and intermediate (K-2) axes which are scattered on a plane sub-parallel to fault surfaces, extending similar to 0.5 m from these fault surfaces. In the Nahef East fault, slight changes in magnetic properties, overall mineralogy and microstructures such as lobate calcite grains, indicate moderate temperatures (<200-250 degrees C), and fluid interaction, which constrains grain reorientation and the development of crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO). Conversely, in the Qiryat Shemona fault, the small (similar to 5 mu m) twinned calcite grains indicate moderate to high temperatures (>250-300 degrees C), high stress (>= 100 MPa) and dry conditions, potentially reflecting the fault's maturity. Distinct deformation fabrics and microstructural features around these faults reveal localized plastic deformation. The results underscore a potential gap between the extent of deformation observed in natural faults and those replicated in laboratory experiments, likely due to limited sample size and timescale considerations in laboratory settings.

Fluid infiltration within fault zones is intimately linked to the physical and chemical attributes of fault rocks, thereby playing a critical role in deformation and evolution of faults. Magnetic properties of fault rocks have proven to be an emerging source of information on faulting processes. To document evidence of fluid infiltration within the Red River Fault (RRF), detailed rock magnetic measurements in combination with mineralogical, and geochemical analyses are conducted on fault rocks collected from the Matouzhai outcrop along the range-front fault of the southern segment of the RRF. The results reveal that the ferrimagnetic fraction in the fault rocks is dominated by magnetite, with a small amount of hematite present in (proto-)cataclasites and fault gouges. Magnetic grain size and concentration decrease significantly from host rocks (mylonitized gneiss), via (proto-) cataclasites to fault gouges. Fault gouges are enriched in volatiles (CO2, LOI, H2O+), rare earth elements (REEs), and calcite, but are depleted in high-field strength (HFS) elements and exhibit negative delta Eu and delta Ce anomalies. These results indicate pervasive infiltration of the fault zone by CO2-rich oxidizing hydrothermal fluids, leading to the depletion of magnetite and oxidation of magnetite to hematite, with dissolution of silicates and precipitation of abundant calcite (high pH). Magnetic parameters, particularly the high-field magnetic susceptibility, show significant correlations with HFS elements and REEs. These observations suggest that the rock magnetic properties of fault rocks are highly sensitive to fluid infiltration, and could serve as indicators of fluid conditions and fluid-rock interactions within fault zones.

Gravity-driven sliding of sediments down subaqueous slopes results in mass transport deposits (MTDs) recognised both in outcrop studies and from offshore margins where they may extend for 100’s km. While seismic sections may reveal the large-scale geometry of such features, they fail to capture some of the structural and stratigraphic detail necessary for a fuller understanding of the processes involved. Using the late Pleistocene Lisan Formation sediments exposed around the Dead Sea Basin as our case study, we show that interplay between bed-parallel translational slides and associated normal faults may result in stratigraphic repetition through a process we term ‘slide stacking’. This mechanism, where retrogressive slope failure results in slides cutting across earlier normal faults, produces repeated sequences with older over younger stratigraphic relationships more usually attributed to compressional (thrust) deformation. Slide stacking results in a ∼25% attenuation of the upper sequence above the basal shear surface (BSS), which is itself associated with liquefaction and fluidised sediment. The displaced stratigraphy above the BSS is also marked by sedimentary rafts that are broken into blocks by normal faults and become increasingly separated from one another during downslope translation. The hangingwalls of synthetic listric faults form roll-overs that are progressively tightened towards the underlying BSS to create overturned anticlines that apparently verge upslope. The paradoxical situation therefore arises of contractional geometries, such as older over younger stratigraphic repetition across slides, and upslope-verging recumbent anticlines with locally overturned limbs being created during downslope-directed gravity-driven extension. The downslope margin of the slide stack displays earlier normal faults that created scarps where much of the sedimentary buttress, that would otherwise support the toe of the slide, was removed. Consequently, this leads to predominantly superficial and unrestrained downslope slipping, resulting in very localised contractional geometries that do not balance the overall extension, as in classical gravity-failure models. Localised deformation of the sedimentary sequence that unconformably overlies the slide stack indicates that downslope translation continued after the initial rapid slope failure, suggesting that the entire MTD remained inherently unstable. Slide stacking operates at km scales with stratigraphic repetition governed by the throw of earlier normal faults and the amount of downslope translation.

The development of a damage scenario following an earthquake swarm event in high-risk areas, such as the inland Sea of Galilee (SoG) in Israel, is critical for significantly increasing public awareness in preparation for a strong earthquake event. Following the earthquake swarms in 2013 and 2020 that occurred near the Dead Sea Fault (DSF) system in the SoG, the present study adopts a conservative approach to damage scenario development, maintaining that these events should be treated as precursory swarms. Accordingly, different damage and loss scenarios were developed using the 2020 Federal Emergency Management Agency software program Hazus and new in-house spatial analysis and postprocessing tools. The results of the scenario analyses confirm that the most intensive damage is expected to be concentrated around the SoG, especially in the adjacent city, Tiberias, if a moderate earthquake (Mw ∼ 6) occurred soon thereafter along the DSF system. In contrast, if a stronger earthquake (Mw ∼ 7) was to occur, the damage may spread to distant cities, such as Beit She’an and Haifa (distances of more than 50 km). Considering the potentially high number of casualties, intensive damage to buildings and essential facilities, high economic loss, blockages of main roads due to slope failures, and weight of debris expected to accumulate near the SoG, we stress the importance of immediate action on the part of civil protection agencies based on the present scenarios to promote the readiness of the population and significantly reduce the anticipated disaster magnitude.

Despite the importance of identifying dynamic stress fields, doing so is not straightforward. This is because most geological processes occur slowly and the formation of fractures is generally attributed to long-term processes. Within the seismically active Dead Sea Basin (DSB), radial and concentric injection clastic dikes were emplaced during earthquake events, but a satisfactory explanation for their geometric configuration is lacking. In this study, field observations were used to explore whether the geometry of the injection clastic dike swarm reflects a quasistatic state of stress, such as with a salt diapir, or if it reflects a dynamic short-term stress state associated with the passage of seismic waves. The results show that the radial clastic dikes are not concentrated toward one central point located approximately 3 km east of the Ami'az Plain, that the concentric clastic dikes are arranged by three subsets, and that the spatial density and strain of both fracture sets are focused mainly toward the center of the Ami'az Plain. This evidence does not fit with a quasistatic state-of-stress interpretation of the region that would be associated with a local stress state around a salt diapir. A more plausible explanation is that the geometry of the radial and concentric clastic dike sets was controlled by short-term seismic waves that were probably generated by earthquake events located along an adjacent fault and that were trapped by the sedimentary basin located below the Ami'az Plain itself. The reconstruction of the injection clastic dike pattern may provide an opportunity to more deeply understand the short-term process induced by paleoearthquakes occurring adjacent to sedimentary basins close to the surface.

Rectangular drainage networks are characterized by right‐angle bends and confluences. The formation of such drainage patterns is commonly associated with orthogonal sets of fractures, making them an outstanding example for structurally controlled landscape evolution. However, this association remains largely circumstantial because little is known about how rectangular drainages mechanistically link to orthogonal fractures. We investigated these linkages in the hyper‐arid Ami'az Plain located within the Dead Sea Basin in Israel. The Ami'az Plain is penetrated by hundreds of sub‐vertical clastic dikes (mode‐I fractures infilled with sediments) and is also incised by a rectangular canyon system. Numerous caves extend from the banks and heads of the canyon system. Based on field surveys and analysis of high‐resolution airborne LiDAR data, we mapped the Ami'az Plain drainage network and its associated landforms, including sinkholes. Our analysis revealed that the subaerial tributaries of the canyon system and the strike of the clastic dikes show similar orientations. In addition, subsurface mapping with a ground‐based scanning LiDAR, together with field experiments, demonstrated that the caves and sinkholes in the Ami'az Plain are spatially associated with clastic dikes and that the caves formed through piping erosion along dikes. Based on these findings, we suggest that clastic dikes act as efficient infiltration pathways to the subsurface, where flow along clastic dikes induces internal erosion that forms pipe caves. The sinkholes form by collapses of cave roofs. Coalescence of sinkholes and seepage erosion where dikes intersect canyon heads generate new tributaries and act to extend existing ones. Fluvial erosion and subsequent bank collapse modify the canyon network. Our findings emphasize the critical role of subsurface erosion, caves and sinkholes in linking fractures to drainage pattern evolution, and provide a new process‐based framework to interpret rectangular drainage networks on Earth and possibly other planetary surfaces.

Characterizing the strain field near faults is a key to understanding its formation origin, kinematics and mechanism. We use magnetic fabrics and Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility (AMS) as strain markers to study the development of the strain field near mesoscale normal faults cutting a weakly deformed chalk host rock that crops out in the Beer Sheva syncline, Israel. We provide a high-resolution view of the magnetic fabrics by constructing horizontal cross-sections, from distance of <0.2 m up to similar to 20 m from the fault planes. The results indicate deformation fabrics that are controlled by the orientation-distribution of calcite coccolith in the chalk. The AMS axes indicate similar and consistent orientations at all localities, even though adjacent faults have different orientations, indicating that the strain field did not develop as a result of the slip along the faults. The maximum susceptibility axes (K-1) and the intermediate susceptibility axes (K-2) axes are parallel and perpendicular to the syncline axis, respectively. These relations suggest that the magnetic fabrics had already been acquired before of the faults and represent the remote strain field that was operating during the formation of the Beer Sheva syncline. We provide independent arguments for an aseismic slip origin of the studied faults, and, by comparing the results with magnetic fabrics near co-seismic faults that formed under similar sedimentary conditions, we highlight the possibility that aseismic and seismic faults have different impact on the distribution of magnetic fabrics and inelastic deformation near them.

Soft-sediment deformation structures associated with slumps and mass transport deposits (MTDs) are generally considered to form at the surface when unlithified sediment moves downslope under the influence of gravity. Where stratigraphic sequences contain several deformed horizons, the question arises as to whether repeated slope failure at the sediment surface has systematically built-up multiple MTDs in the stratigraphic record in a 'sequential failure model'. Alternatively, a single failure event may concurrently create surficial and sub-surface deformed 'intrastratal' horizons at different stratigraphic levels in a 'synchronous failure model'. The implications of these differing models are important as sub-surface deformation can be significantly younger than the depositional age of beds it affects thereby weakening age-depth correlations used to estimate the timing of palaeo-earthquakes. In order to investigate the potential for sub-surface deformation, we examine the late Pleistocene Lisan Formation exposed around the Dead Sea Basin that contains numerous MTDs and gravity-driven fold and thrust systems. Surficial deformation is recognised by identifying irregular erosive surfaces above MTDs that are overlain by sedimentary caps deposited out of suspension following the failure event. Such surficial deformation is also characterised by thickened sedimentary successions that create 'growth' sequences. Conversely, sub-surface intrastratal deformation is typified by detachment-bound folds and thrusts that are marked by repetitions of stratigraphy across the upper detachment surface, fluidised sediment that intrudes upwards into the overlying sequence, together with abrupt truncations of older faults developed in overburden above the detachment. MTDs created at the surface form relatively competent horizons when subsequently buried as they are internally disrupted and lack 'layer-cake' geometries, while repeated seismicity can lead to dewatering and compaction resulting in 'seismic strengthening'. Later sub-surface deformation may therefore be focussed adjacent to earlier MTDs that influence the mechanical stratigraphy, leading to secondary failures and complications when attempting to 'balance' extension and contraction that may be of different ages. Sub-surface deformation is localised along discrete detachments that carry the overlying sequence downslope as relatively intact slides, affecting what appear to be 'undeformed' beds between individual MTDs. As sub-surface deformation does not directly correlate with sedimentary caps, the rates of movement on deeper detachments remain unconstrained and may be significantly slower than surficial deformation resulting in downslope creep of the sediment pile.

Although sedimentary dykes have been widely reported across a range of settings, sedimentary sills have received somewhat less attention, perhaps due to the potential difficulties in identifying largely conformable intrusions within bedded sequences. Most outcrop descriptions of clastic intrusions are based on deep-water marine sequences, with few descriptions of sills in lacustrine settings. The recognition of sills in such settings is, however, important because lacustrine sequences are increasingly used as a record of palaeoseismic activity. The misidentification of sills that contain fragments and clasts of host stratigraphy with seismically-generated turbidites and debris flows, may lead to incorrect interpretations of palaeoseismicity. We use the Late Pleistocene Lisan Formation of the Dead Sea Basin as a case study, where laminated lake sediments preserve intricate relationships with sills. This permits us to not only establish a range of criteria used in the identification of sedimentary sills, but also examine relationships with adjacent seismically-triggered slumps and slides. Key criteria we use to recognise sills include marked changes in their thickness together with bifurcation and bridging geometries. Sills may be internally layered, contain lenses of breccia, together with aligned and folded clasts that may be truncated across upper sill contacts. Critical evidence for the interpretation of sills is also preserved along sharp but irregular upper contacts that erode and truncate bedding in the overlying host sequence. Minor apophyses and 'wedges' intrude both upwards and downwards from sills, while isoclinal recumbent 'peel-back' folds are created in host sediments by shear generated along the lower contacts of sills. We have undertaken anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) analysis and find an oblate fabric that suggests flow and intrusion of sills along the strike of the slope, that may also help with their identification in bedded sequences. Sills form along detachments to both extensional and contractional deformation associated with seismically-generated slumps and mass transport deposits, together with sub-surface fold and thrust systems. High fluid pressures associated with injection of sedimentary sills may facilitate near-surface failure and downslope movement of the sedimentary pile.

We investigate the magnetic fabrics and microstructures of diamagnetic rocksalt samples from the Sedom salt wall (diapir), Dead Sea Basin, as possible strain markers. A comprehensive study of anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS), combined with magnetic, microtextural, geochemical and mineralogical analyses allows us to depict the deformation mechanisms and to reveal the mineral sources of the AMS. The rocksalts are composed of halite as the major mineral phase (>80%) and anhydrite as a minor phase (5–20%), and have an average magnetic susceptibility value of −13.4 ± 0.7 × 10−6 SI. Ferromagnetic and paramagnetic minerals make a negligible contribution to the bulk magnetic properties of the samples. The AMS indicates and reveals significant anisotropy with the maximum susceptibility axis (K1) subparallel to the bedding strike, although the cubic halite crystals are isotropic. Polarizing microscope and SEM images show preferred alignment of needle-like anhydrite crystals parallel to the direction of the K1 axis. Petrographic investigation of gamma irradiated thin sections reveals the deformation recorded in the microstructures of the rocksalts and points to a dominant contribution by dislocation creep, although both dislocation creep and pressure solution were active deformation mechanisms. We infer that during dislocation creep, the thin bands of anhydrite crystals deform along with the surrounding halite grains. We suggest that although the shape preferred orientation of halite grains is not indicative of finite strain because of resetting by grain boundary migration, the preferred orientation of the anhydrite crystals may be. These results suggest that the AMS of the rocksalts provides a textural proxy that reflects deformation processes of the rocksalts, despite their very low magnetic susceptibility.

We exploit the potential of magnetic fabrics acting as strain markers in folded layers, by analysing an exceptionally well-exposed, recent (<1 kyr) slump horizon in unlithified lake deposits within the Dead Sea basin. The similar to 3-m-long folded soft-sediment layer, together with an underlying basal detachment, and an 'undeformed' reference layer are extensively sampled (n = 97) for an anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) analysis. This analysis reveals deformation fabrics within the folded layer which are significantly different from fabrics detected in the 'undeformed' layer. The maximum magnetic susceptibility axes (K-1) show a hinge-parallel orientation, and the minimum magnetic susceptibility axes (K-3) show a trail of orientations directed eastward parallel to the direction of downslope slumping toward the depocenter of the basin. In terms of shape of the AMS, samples from the 'undeformed' layer are oblate, while the majority of samples from the fold backlimb are oblate to neutral, and those from the forelimb and hinge zones are more prolate. We postulate that the deformation shown by the AMS analysis approximates well to sections through the strain ellipsoid in the folded layer, suggesting that magnetic fabrics serve as strain markers that are invisible to the naked eye. The deformation fabrics are created by particles moving relative to one another and reorganising during hydroplastic deformation. Particles physically rotate in the hinge zone, resulting in shortening of the intermediate axes and creation of more prolate shapes. The combination of two types of fabrics (deposition and deformation) in the hinge zones increases the intensity of the lineation due to the intersection of the primary and secondary fabrics (foliations). Based on the dense sampling scheme, we produce GIS-based interpolation maps that show the spatial distribution of the AMS parameters in the folded layer. These maps are compared to data from classical strain analyses, providing a benchmark for combining traditional structural methods and AMS analyses in studying folding and soft-sediment deformation.

Rectangular drainage networks are characterized by right-angle channel bends and confluences. The formation of the rectangular pattern is commonly associated with orthogonal sets of fractures, making rectangular drainages an outstanding example of structurally controlled landform evolution. However, the association between geologic structures and rectangular patterns remains circumstantial. So far, no specific mechanisms were suggested to explain the linkage between the emergent right-angle bends and confluences and the preexisting fracture system. This gap is particularly significant for planetary rectangular drainages, where the association with preexisting structures can not be directly observed. We investigated the mechanistic linkages between geologic structures and the geomorphic drainage pattern in the hyper-arid Ami'az Plain located within the Dead Sea Basin in SE Israel. The Ami'az Plain is incised by a seemingly rectangular canyon system and is also penetrated by hundreds of sub-vertical clastic dikes (mode-I opening cracks infilled with sedimentary material), that reach a width of up to 0.18 m. Additionally, many caves and cavities extend from the banks and heads of the canyon system. Based on field surveys and analysis of a high resolution LiDAR based DEM, we mapped and characterized the Ami’az Plain drainage network and associated geomorphic structures including sinkholes. Our analysis revealed that the canyon system exhibits rectangular characteristics and its tributaries share dominant orientations with the strike of the clastic dikes. Surface and subsurface mapping assisted by Ground scanning LiDAR, together with field experiments, demonstrated that the caves and sinkholes are spatially associated with clastic dikes and that the caves formed by piping erosion along dikes. Based on these findings, we propose a three-component hydrologic-geomorphic model for the formation of the Ami’az Plain rectangular drainage network: First, clastic dikes act as efficient infiltration pathways for surface runoff into the subsurface, where subsurface flow along clastic dikes induces internal erosion and forms piping caves. Second, collapses of cave roofs create sinkholes. Coalescence of sinkholes and seepage erosion in places where dikes intersect canyon banks and canyon heads generate new tributaries and extend existing ones. Finally, fluvial erosion and bank collapse modify the drainage network. Our observations and model emphasize the critical role of subsurface erosion and the formation of caves and sinkholes in linking fractures to drainage pattern evolution. This linkage could be highly consequential for our understanding of rectangular drainage evolution on planetary and terrestrial surfaces.

Although most models of thrusting assume that the hangingwall is actively displaced up the thrust ramp while the footwall remains passive, it has been suggested that this could be an oversimplification and the footwall may also deform. Despite this, there are relatively few detailed investigations of thrusts where the footwall is deformed, perhaps reflecting issues with space and accommodation if the footwall actively moves downwards to deeper levels. Furthermore, such studies assume that the thrust is deeply buried, otherwise the hangingwall is more likely to rise and simply uplift the surface. Using examples from gravity-driven fold and thrust systems developed in unlithified late Pleistocene sediments around the Dead Sea Basin, we investigate pristine fold and thrust geometries unaffected by later compaction and deformation to establish two end-member models of overthrust and underthrust ramp development. During overthrusting, the hangingwall is uplifted and marker beds remain at or above regional elevation, whereas the footwall of underthrust ramps is depressed and marker beds are deflected below regional. The greatest displacement generally develops low down overthrust ramps and decreases upwards, whereas larger displacements form high up underthrust ramps and reduce downwards. The reduction in displacement in overthrust ramps is marked by decreasing dips, whereas displacement increases with decreasing dips up underthrust ramps. Fault propagation folding creates hangingwall antiforms above overthrust ramps, whereas footwall synforms develop below underthrust ramps. The effect of this folding is that hangingwall sequences and cut-offs are relatively thinned (stretch <1) in overthrust ramps, while footwall sequences and cut-offs are thinned in underthrust ramps (stretch>1). Not all ramps follow these end-member geometries and mixed ‘wedge’ ramps also develop in which the hangingwall and footwall to the ramp are both deformed to varying degrees. Underthrust ramps are generally developed where failure initiates in competent units higher up the deforming sequence, and then propagates downwards towards underlying potential detachments. Downward propagation is accommodated by footwall synforms and weak beds that absorb deformation by differential vertical compaction resulting in up to 50% thinning in some cases. A consequence of underthrusting is that the crests of hangingwall structures tend to remain at the same elevation and are therefore unable to build significant topography or bathymetry on the sediment-water interface, thereby rendering critical taper models of less relevance. Significant vertical compaction may facilitate expulsion of fluids that drive further deformation and may also complicate the use of area balancing techniques during restoration of thrust systems.

The extensive loss of human lives and building damage sustained during past tsunamis drove development of the first tsunami risk assessment in Israel. Although past tsunamis have occurred along the eastern Mediterranean coasts, no data is available for empirical hazard and risk analysis. Thus, our assessment focused on a simulated tsunami generated by an Mw 8.2 earthquake along the eastern Cypriot Arc (about 200 km NW of Haifa) in Bat Galim, the most vulnerable neighborhood in the city of Haifa, situated along the Mediterranean coast in northern Israel. This tsunami event represents the worst-case scenario threatening Bat Galim. Exposure data were taken from the National Archives of the Survey of Israel and was verified with a field survey. Two approaches were taken to derive the most appropriate vulnerability models for the study: first, already published Damage Criteria (DC) were developed based on information from past tsunami events around the world; second, damage functions were applied using the Hazus Tsunami Model (HTM), a multi-parameter loss estimation tool built using detailed engineering knowledge. Risk was considered the product of hazard, exposure, and vulnerability. Following several parametric studies and sensitivity tests, we produced loss assessment results from the two most realistic model outcomes and arrived at conclusions meaningful for tsunami preparedness in northern Israel. Most importantly, we note that the loss of life far surpasses building damage. Increasing community preparedness is the simplest and most cost-effective way to significantly reduce the risk of casualties during a tsunami. We also note that upgrading the seismic design of existing structures according to required standards in Israel will decrease vulnerability to tsunamis and expand possibilities for vertical evacuation. We discuss the accuracy and reliability of our analysis and demonstrate that a simple DC approach is useful for preliminary investigation in cases of limited data. The HTM however, requires detailed preparation and data inputs but produces more realistic loss estimates. These insights may aid others during future implementation of tsunami loss modeling in threatened coastal communities.

Magnetic fabric analyses of rocks by anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) are a robust petrofabric tool that has been used in varied geological environments and tectonic settings. A fundamental difficulty of this method is to define the dominant magnetic phases and their resulting geological interpretation. We study the magnetic behavior of rocks by simulating data of mixed magnetic phases (i.e., diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic). We show that it is possible to recognize the dominant magnetic phases by measuring the mean susceptibility at room temperature ( k m RT ) and at low temperature ( k m LT ). Distinct regions of magnetic phase dominancy are demonstrated in k m LT / k m RT versus k m RT and k m LT versus k m RT plots. We present a comprehensive approach by coupling the magnetic phase dominancy with possible magnetic fabrics, which are obtained from AMS measured at room and low temperatures (RT‐AMS and LT‐AMS) and anisotropy of anhysteretic remanent magnetization, into a scenario table. Application of this table allows a robust procedure for determining which magnetic phases are dominant, and permits a fast and reliable geological interpretation in complex settings.

A long-standing problem in paleoseismic studies is to distinguish between aseismic and seismic slips along faults. We address this problem by characterizing the magnetic fabrics of rock samples aro...

Gravity-driven mass transport deposits (MTDs) form by the downslope-directed movement of sediment associated with slope failure. Simple models suggest that extension forms at the upslope (head) area, contraction is focussed in the downslope toe of the slump, while differential shear associated with strike-slip is restricted to the lateral margins of the slump. Although the head and toe are considered to be dominated by layer-parallel shear (LPS), differential layer-normal shear (LNS) may be generated around the lateral margins of slumps and potentially also within MTDs where flow has been separated into different `lobes'. Despite this realisation that LNS must form, there has been little work into the geometries and spatial relationships of resulting structures. Using the late Pleistocene Lisan Formation exposed around the Dead Sea Basin as our case study, we examine detailed (<10 m) relationships of folds and thrusts created during LNS and LPS, as well as investigating the role of broadly coeval extension that may reactivate these structures. We also undertake analysis of anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) fabrics to determine flow and shear relationships around folds and detachments created during LNS and LPS. Our study shows that LPS results in gently-curvilinear fold hinges that arc around the transport direction while LNS results in cylindrical fold hinges developed oblique or sub-parallel to transport. Such folds may be recumbent or upright, and associated with lateral ramps marking areas of differential LNS within the MTD. These structures are interpreted to accommodate variations in the amount and direction of downslope-directed movement resulting in LNS around the margins of individual flow 'lobes' that are developed over tens of metres. These 'lobes' display broadly down-slope transport with locally radial flow that results in along-strike shortening between lobes. Our analysis of AMS fabrics shows that they are controlled by slump folds, but magnetic fabrics do not differentiate how these folds were created in zones of LPS or differential LNS. AMS taken from gouge formed along detachments marked by differential LNS provide a first-order indicator for the transport direction. In addition, AMS fabrics in gouge or fluidised layers directly beneath thrust ramps, reveals prolate fabrics marking a component of strike-parallel flow along the branching intersections of thrust ramps and flats. Extensional faults directly reactivate existing thrusts, or create new extensional faults that are sub-parallel to thrusts or cut across them at steeper angles. Extension is part of the same MTD event as a sedimentary cap that is deposited out of suspension following slope failure, overlies and locally thickens into the hangingwall of extensional faults to create 'growth' sequences. Extensional reactivation and 'collapse' of original thrusts may help explain why contraction is apparently 'missing' from many seismic sections across MTDs.

Fold duplexes transfer displacement from a lower to an upper bounding detachment system via trains of folds with broadly parallel geometries. While they have been previously recognised in orogenic systems where they are considered to be kinematically equivalent to imbricating thrust ramps, we here describe the first example from a gravity-driven fold and thrust system (FATS) developed within late-Pleistocene mass transport deposits (MTDs) that formed around the Dead Sea Basin. The recognition in this study of basal and upper detachments that bound the FATS, together with later thrust ramps that imbricate the previously folded sequence, indicates that a fold duplex model is applicable in this case. Truncation of synclinal hinges, together with trapping of duplex roof stratigraphy in synclinal fold cores indicates that initiation of buckling precedes detachments, which then propagated along the upper and lower boundaries of the FATS to create a fold duplex. Downslope-verging folds, which are bound by the detachments, are subsequently cut by thrust ramps with greatest displacement recorded where ramps branch from the basal detachment. As thrust displacement increases then ramp angles generally reduce, which allows thrusts to continue to move and accrue larger displacements. Sequential flattening of lower thrusts in overstep sequences may create apparent 'back-steepening' up the slope in what superficially resembles 'pseudo-piggyback' sequences. Flattening of thrusts is achieved through tightening, rotation and expulsion of wet sediment and fluid from the cores of footwall synclines and is a consequence of loading from overlying thrust sheets. We speculate that expelled fluids may pond directly beneath overlying detrital-rich units that act as baffles and locally increase fluid pressures thereby facilitating further movement along the upper detachment. We establish a new model, whereby the vergence of structures formed above the upper detachment depends on the relative rates of roof and FATS translation, with slower downslope translation of the roof generating upslope verging folds in a 'sub-active' roof, while more rapid movement of a 'super-active' roof creates downslope verging folds. The observation that such patterns of minor fold vergence in the roof still largely correspond with the position of folds and thrusts in the underlying FATS indicates that only limited relative translation subsequently occurred between the roof and the FATS. This suggests that displacement must have transferred upwards to new upper detachments shortly after the folds in the roof were created, thereby 'fixing' the spatial correlation. As older detachments are folded and 'lock up', displacement migrates to new upper detachments that develop along pristine 'easy-slip' laminations at higher stratigraphic levels, thereby thickening the deforming FATS towards the sediment free surface. The creation of these new upper detachments at higher stratigraphic levels, together with the development of local overstep imbricate sequences are the principal differences between fold duplexes observed in orogenic settings and those in surficial gravity-driven FATS.