Stand age plays a crucial role in forest biomass estimation and carbon cycle modeling. Assessing the uncertainty of stand age prediction models and identifying the key driving factors in the modeling process have become major challenges in forestry research. In this study, we selected the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia region of Northeast China as the research area and utilized multi-source datasets from the summer of 2019 to extract information on spectral, textural, climatic, water balance, and stand characteristics. By integrating the Random Forest (RF) model with Monte Carlo (MC) simulation, we constructed six regression models based on different combinations of features and evaluated the uncertainty of each model. Furthermore, we investigated the driving factors influencing stand age modeling by analyzing the effects of different types of features on age inversion. Model performance and accuracy were assessed using the root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and the coefficient of determination (R2), while the relative root mean square error (rRMSE) was employed to quantify model uncertainty. The results indicate that the scenarios with more obvious improvement in accuracy and effective reduction in uncertainty were Scenario 3 with the inclusion of climate and water balance information (RMSE = 25.54 yr, MAE = 18.03 yr, R2 = 0.51, rRMSE = 19.17%) and Scenario 5 with the inclusion of stand characterization information (RMSE = 18.47 yr, MAE = 13.05 yr, R2 = 0.74, rRMSE = 16.99%). Scenario 6, incorporating all feature types, achieved the highest accuracy (RMSE = 17.60 yr, MAE=12.06 yr, R2=0.77, rRMSE = 14.19%). In this study, elevation, minimum temperature, and diameter at breast height (DBH) emerged as the key drivers of stand-age modeling. The proposed method can be used to identify drivers and to quantify uncertainty in stand-age estimation, providing a useful reference for improving model accuracy and uncertainty assessment.

Zoos play dual roles in wildlife conservation and in providing recreational experiences for visitors in urban green spaces. However, the impacts of thermal environments on both visitor comfort and captive animal welfare remain unexplored, which is an important aspect to address for improving overall zoo management. This study investigated thermal conditions at Jinan Zoo, China, over 20 summer days. Questionnaires were used to collect visitor thermal comfort and viewing satisfaction, while the thermal mitigation behaviors of 70 blue peafowls were recorded under various thermal conditions on-site. The findings showed that the wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) neutral range for visitors was 20.1–24.4 °C, with a significant drop in visitor numbers when WBGT exceeded 35.5 °C. Visitors with higher animal viewing satisfaction (aVSV) scores were more heat tolerant. The blue peafowls reduced their activity levels and displayed feather-spreading and gular flutter at WBGT levels of 26.4–30.4 °C, especially during peak visitor hours. Our study also showed that visitor thermal sensation was most affected by radiation, whereas blue peafowl heat stress was likely influenced by air temperature, followed by humidity and radiation. These findings offer practical insights for designing zoo enclosures and visitor areas to improve comfort and animal welfare in hot weather.

Wetlands are vital ecosystems for waterbirds and are experiencing a global decline due to human activities. Our study investigated the population dynamics and habitat preferences of waterbirds in six geographically distinct wetlands (Chashma, Dhap Chapak, Taunsa, Haleji, Raja, and Uchali) along the Indus River flyway, Pakistan. Point count methods were used during five consecutive migratory seasons (September and March from 2017 to 2022) using point count method. In total, 73 waterbird species from 19 families and 11 orders were detected. Species richness varied significantly (F5, 437 = 8.14, p < 0.000) across wetlands. We recorded species richness (R = 73.0), species diversity (H' = 3.714), population trend (lambda = 0.031), and species dispersion (E = 0.865). Chashma wetland exhibited the highest species richness (S = 52), as well as the highest relative abundance and diversity. Uchali had the highest population of waterbirds (45,095 individuals), while Raja displayed the most uniform species dispersion (8711 individuals). The detection of endangered species, i.e., Pallas fish eagles (Haliaeetus leucorphyus) and Black-bellied terns (Sterna acuticauda) in these wetlands is crucial. "Additionally, seven nearly threatened waterbird species were recorded, i.e., Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa), Great Painted Snipe (Rostratula benghalensis), Oriental Darter (Anhinga melanogaster), Northern Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), Indian River Tern (Sterna aurantia), Asian Woolly-necked Stork (Ciconia episcopus), and Lesser Flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor). This highlights the significance of the wetland". We recommend regular monitoring by wildlife authorities to track population trends, assess habitat suitability, and identify threats. Conservation efforts should prioritize water regime maintenance, pollution control, and community engagement for long-term wetland management and waterbird conservation.

Flood is the most frequent and destructive natural disaster, causing significant negative impacts on humans and built and natural ecosystems. While it is extremely challenging to prevent floods, their associated hazards can be mitigated through well-planned and appropriate measures. The present study combined the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) analysis and an ArcGIS-based multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) approach to assess, categorize, quantify, and map the flood-prone areas in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, a region particularly vulnerable to recurrent flooding. Eight key factors including precipitation, rivers/streams, slope, elevation, soil, normalized difference vegetation index, and land use were used for flood susceptibility modeling. The weighted sum overlay tool in global positioning system ArcGIS was utilized to give weightage to each raster layer, based on the AHP ranking to produce a flood susceptibility map for the study area. According to the AHP analysis, the most impactful factors defining the flood susceptibility in our study area were streams (0.29%), precipitation (0.23%), slope of the area (14%), and LST (10%). Our flood model achieved excellent accuracy, with Area Under the Curve (AUC) value of 0.911. The model predicted that 9% of the total area is classified as very high risk, while 14% is identified as high risk, covering approximately 923,257 hectares and 1,419,480 hectares, respectively. These high-risk zones are predominantly concentrated in the central and lower northern, densely populated districts of the province. Our flood susceptibility results would assist policymakers, concerned departments, and local communities in assessing flood risk in a timely manner and designing effective mitigation and response strategies.

Climate change has led to global biodiversity loss, severely impacting all species, including essential pollinators like bees, which are highly sensitive to environmental changes. Like other bee species, A. dorsata is also not immune to climate change. This study evaluated the habitat suitability of A. dorsata under climate change in Pakistan by utilizing two years of occurrence and distribution data to develop a Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model for forecasting current and future habitat distribution. Future habitat projections for 2050 and 2070 were based on two shared socioeconomic pathways (SSP245 and SSP585) using the CNRM-CM6-1 and EPI-ESM1-2-HR-1 global circulation models. Eight bioclimatic variables (Bio1, Bio4, Bio5, Bio8, Bio10, Bio12, Bio18, and Bio19) were selected for modeling, and among the selected variables, the mean temperature of the wettest quarter (Bio8) and precipitation of the warmest quarter (Bio18) showed major contributions to the model building and strongest influence on habitat of A. dorsata. The model estimated 23% of our study area as a suitable habitat for A. dorsata under current climatic conditions, comprising 150,975 km2 of moderately suitable and 49,792 km2 of highly suitable regions. For future climatic scenarios, our model projected significant habitat loss for A. dorsata with a shrinkage and shift towards northern, higher-altitude regions, particularly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the Himalayan foothills. Habitat projections under the extreme climatic scenario (SSP585) are particularly alarming, indicating a substantial loss of the suitable habitat for the A. dorsata of 40% under CNRM-CM6-1 and 79% for EPI-ESM1-2-HR-1 for the 2070 time period. This study emphasizes the critical need for conservation efforts to protect A. dorsata and highlights the species’ role in pollination and supporting the apiculture industry in Pakistan.

Human–wildlife conflict poses significant ecological and socio-economic challenges, particularly in rural communities where agriculture and livestock rearing form the backbone of livelihoods. Despite the growing importance of this issue, District Lakki Marwat remains an unexplored area of northwest Pakistan. This study aims to fill this gap by systematically assessing the status, economic impacts, and community perceptions of five wildlife species: wild boar (Sus scrofa), grey wolf (Canis lupus), golden jackal (Canis aureus), striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Using semi-structured surveys with 117 respondents, we analyzed species prevalence, perceived danger levels, crop damage patterns, and predation impacts on livestock and poultry. The findings revealed that wild boars were identified as the primary contributors to agricultural damage, with total annual crop losses surpassing the economic impacts attributed to the studied carnivores. On average, each surveyed household experienced an annual loss of PKR 4510.38. For the 39% of households reporting crop damage, the annual loss per reported household was PKR 11,727, which was higher than the average annual loss across all households, underscoring the severity of the impact on those specifically affected by the wild boar-related crop damage. Notably, community attitudes were most negative toward wild boars, a pattern driven by the economic burden of crop losses, challenging the conventional focus on carnivores as the primary conflict species. A Pearson’s X2 test confirmed strong associations between species and perceived danger levels, while regression analysis demonstrated an association between crop damage and negative attitudes. Traditional deterrents like thorn fences were found ineffective against wild boars. More advanced methods, including game-proof fencing, trenches, bio-fencing, crop rotation, audio and visual deterrents, taste and order repellents, and watchtowers combined with group vigilance, are recommended to reduce crop damage. Integrating these approaches with community-based education, habitat management, and government-supported compensation schemes can mitigate wild boar impacts. This study contributes new insights into multi-species HWC dynamics, demonstrating that community perceptions are primarily shaped by the economic impact of a species, regardless of whether it is a carnivore or an omnivore. The attitudes of local communities are driven by the financial losses incurred, rather than the species' behavior or ecological role. This study underscores the need for collaborative efforts to reduce human–wildlife conflict, foster coexistence, and ensure ecological balance in vulnerable rural areas.

Temporal niche-partitioning is a key strategy for prey to avoid predators and for predators to successfully coexist sympatrically. However, little is known about the temporal and spatial dynamics of snow leopards with key prey species. We investigated the spring daily activity patterns and spatial density distributions of snow leopard (Panthera uncia), Himalayan ibex (Capra ibex sibirica), and domestic yak (Bos grunniens) to unravel the spatiotemporal behavior within their shared alpine habitat in Northern Pakistan using trail cameras data. The results indicated that snow leopards exhibited a bimodal activity pattern, with peaks around midnight and dawn. In contrast, the ibex displayed a predominantly diurnal pattern, starting at dawn and minimally overlapping with the snow leopard. Attended yaks showed a uniform diurnal activity pattern under human protection, while unattended yaks exhibited irregular activity across day and night, suggesting higher vulnerability to predation. Spatial density analysis revealed notable overlaps between species pairs, particularly unattended yaks and snow leopards, highlighting the influence of spatial dynamics on predator-prey interactions. The clear off-phased and contrasting pattern of activity between snow leopard and ibex in our study showed temporal partitioning in spring and indicates that unattended yak may be a more heavily predated species than previously thought. This study provides the first comparative analysis of temporal activity patterns between a key predator and wild and domestic prey in Northern Pakistan. This research broadens our understanding of animal behavior through the lens of spatiotemporal interactions and provides insights into the complex dynamics between predator and prey in the challenging alpine landscape. Our findings emphasize the importance of livestock guarding to mitigate depredation and highlight the complexities of predator-prey interactions in both time and space, along with the resulting behavioral adaptations.

Population abundance and density estimates play important roles in biodiversity conservation assessment and can lead to prioritization of conservation efforts, strategies, and management. The Calabar angwantibo (Arctocebus calabarensis) is a poorly studied, Near-Threatened nocturnal, arboreal mammal species occurring only in the lowland moist tropical rainforest blocks of southeastern Nigeria and southwestern Cameroon. Like other arboreal nocturnal mammals, there are gaps in knowledge of the distribution and abundance of this species, which may be facing population declines due to habitat loss and hunting. In this study, we investigated the abundance and density of A. calabarensis in the Oban Hills Region of Nigeria. We conducted systematic distance sampling survey along 32 transects in different habitats in a 1227 km of survey efforts. A total of 41 sightings of A. calabarensis were detected, resulting in an abundance of 7345 individuals (95% CI = 1.51–4.37) with an estimated density of 2.57 animals/km2. The estimated population abundance is 6515 individuals in closed-canopy forests and 830 individuals in secondary forests, with encounter rates of 0.52 individual/km2 and 0.60 individuals/km2 in the closed canopy and secondary forest habitats. The global estimates encounter rate of A. calabarensis across the habitat types is 0.33 individuals/km2 and population abundance of 4456 individuals. Our findings indicate that the A. calabarensis populations can adapt to low changes in forest habitat modifications resulting from increasing and widespread forest disturbance by human-dominated activity, which is giving way to forest clearance for agriculture cultivation and infrastructural development. Our findings help to fill a knowledge gap regarding this species and may help establish a baseline for future management, population monitoring, and conservation of the cryptic population of A. calabarensis in Cross-Sanaga Forests.

The tourism industry is a significant contribution to the economy of many countries, including Pakistan. However, its activities often have a negative impact on the environment, particularly related to climate change. Notably, Pakistan ranks fifth among countries most affected by climate change, which requires a targeted analysis of the tourism sector to determine its potential impacts. Despite the critical nature of this issue, there is currently a lack of research that examines how climate change specifically impacts Pakistan's tourism industry. This study aims to address this gap by using the Tourism Climate Index (TCI) to assess the impact of climate change on the suitability of different tourism locations across the country. Our results show that popular tourist destinations such as Gilgit-Baltistan experience their peak season in the warmer third quarter (summer), which corresponds to the highest observed TCI values. This suggests that warmer temperatures could boost tourism activity and spending in these regions. Furthermore, our analysis shows that air temperature plays a crucial role in determining tourist comfort levels and significantly influences tourists' TCI values and sensory experiences. The results of this study show that the TCI methodology can be an effective tool for further research into the geographical impacts of climate change on tourism. By identifying necessary changes due to climatic changes, future studies could provide valuable insights into how the tourism industry can adapt to and reduce its environmental footprint.

The inevitable impacts of climate change have reverberated across ecosystems and caused substantial global biodiversity loss. Climate-induced habitat loss has contributed to range shifts at both species and community levels. Given the importance of identifying suitable habitats for at-risk species, it is imperative to assess potential current and future distributions, and to understand influential environmental factors. Like many species, the Demoiselle crane is not immune to climatic pressures. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan provinces in Pakistan are known wintering grounds for this species. Given that Pakistan is among the top five countries facing devastating effects of climate change, this study sought to conduct species distribution modeling under climate change using data collected during 4 years of field surveys. We developed a Maximum Entropy distribution model to predict the current and projected future distribution of the species across the study area. Future habitat projections for 2050 and 2070 were carried out using two representative concentration pathways (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5) under three global circulation models, including HADGEM2-AO, BCC-CSM1-1, and CCSM4. The most influential factors shaping Demoiselle Crane habitat suitability included the temperature seasonality, annual mean temperature, terrain ruggedness index, and human population density, all of which contributed significantly to the suitability (81.3%). The model identified 35% of the study area as moderately suitable (134,068 km2) and highly suitable (27,911 km2) habitat for the species under current climatic conditions. Under changing climate scenarios, our model predicted a major loss of the species’ current suitable habitat, with shrinkage and shift towards western–central areas along the Pakistan–Afghanistan boarder. The RCP 8.5, which is the extreme climate change scenario, portrays particularly severe consequences, with habitat losses reaching 65% in 2050 and 85% in 2070. This comprehensive study provides useful insights into the Demoiselle Crane habitat’s current and future dynamics in Pakistan.

Insecticide application is still a standard method in pest management. However, the current regions for insecticide application usually focus on the host of the pest but ignore the migration pathways, continually resulting in pests' periodic outbreaks. This research provides a valuable modeling framework to identify optimal regions for insecticide application to solve this problem. This modeling framework optimizes insecticide areas based on habitat suitability and landscape connectivity, combining the MaxEnt and circuit theory. We conducted a case study in Beijing, China, to elucidate the application of this modeling framework. The input data included 517 occurrence points of Semiothisa cinerearia collected in the fieldwork and the environmental variables related to the eco-physiological characteristics of this species. The results indicated that the Chinese scholar tree (Styphnolobium japonicum) was the most vulnerable species. Increasing the pesticide region by 11.9% at some crucial corridors of the target species, the pest management effectiveness increased by 27.7%, compared with the pesticide applied only to the Chinese scholar trees. In summary, this study proposed a convenient and efficient modeling methodology for planning optimal regions for insecticide application.

Species conservation actions are guided by available information on the biogeography of the protected species. In this study, we integrated the occurrence data of Siberian musk deer (Moschus moschiferus L.) collected from 2019 to 2021 with species distribution models to estimate the species’ potential distribution in Northeast China. We then identified conservation priority areas using a core-area zonation algorithm. In addition, we analyzed core patch fragmentation using FRAGSTATS. Lastly, we identified potential connectivity corridors and constructed a potential protection network based on the least-cost path and the circuit theory. The results showed concentrations of M. moschiferus in the northern Greater Khingan Mountains, the southeastern Lesser Khingan Mountains, and the eastern Changbai Mountains, with a potential distribution area of 127,442.14 km2. Conservation priority areas included 41 core patches with an area of 106,306.43 km2. Patch fragmentation mainly occurred in the Changbai Mountains and the Lesser Khingan Mountains. We constructed an ecological network composed of 41 core patches and 69 linkages for M. moschiferus in Northeast China. The results suggest that the Greater Khingan Mountains represent the most suitable area to maintain the stability of M. moschiferus populations in Northeast China. Considering the high habitat quality requirements of M. moschiferus and its endangered status, we propose that the Chinese government accelerates the construction of the Greater Khingan Mountains National Park and the Lesser Khingan Mountains National Park and enlarges the Northeast China Tiger and Leopard National Park to address the fragmentation of protected areas and the habitat of M. moschiferus.

Agroforestry is an integrated land use for agriculture and forestry which can ensure food security as well as forest cover. Notwithstanding, competition for natural resources can occur in some cases. Therefore, the present study was conducted to assess the effect of Prosopis cineraria on wheat growth and production. Wheat growth and production parameters were recorded at three distances from the tree base, as well as four aspects of the tree at five localities. The parameters recorded were; number of wheat plants m−2, number of tillers plant−1, leaf plant−1, wheat biomass m−2 and wheat production m−2. The results showed a marginal effect on wheat growth and production on the southern aspect and at 12.0 m distance from the tree base. Similarly, the effect was highly significant (p < 0.01) at 3.0 m distance from the tree base and also on the northern aspect of the tree. However, this effect varied with locality to locality. The highest mean wheat production was 84.03 ± 6.00 g m−2 at Shahab-Khel. The wheat production was > 31

The unchecked and unplanned expansion of urban areas has led to the conversion of millions of green areas to gray areas. The recent urban growth patterns of Pakistan’s metropolitan twin cities, Islamabad and Rawalpindi, is a matter of concern for the surrounding green areas. The present study aimed to categorize and quantify the land-use and land-cover change (LULCC) patterns and the corresponding impacts on the forest carbon dynamics around Islamabad and Rawalpindi. Multispectral satellite images for the year 1990 (Landsat 5 TM) and 2020 (Landsat 8 OLI) were used to determine, quantify, and compare the LULCC inside and around the twin metropolitan cities. Field inventory surveys in the reserved forests of Rawalpindi and Islamabad were also conducted to determine the amount of stored carbon in these forests. Our results showed an accelerated annual urban expansion (i.e., an increase in the built-up area) of 16.49% and 26.72% in Rawalpindi and Islamabad, respectively, during the study period. Similarly, the amount of barren land and agricultural land was reduced at an annual rate of 2.08% and 2.18%, respectively, in Rawalpindi and 0.25% and 1.04% in Islamabad. A reduction in the area of barren mountains also occurred at an annual of 2.26% in Islamabad, while it increased by 4.16% in Rawalpindi. The amount of carbon stored in the reserved forests of Islamabad stood at 139.17 ± 12.15 Mg C/ha while that of Rawalpindi was 110.4 ± 13.79 Mg C/ha. In addition, total stored forest carbon was found to have decreased from 544.70 Gg C to 218.05 Gg C in Rawalpindi, while in Islamabad it increased from 2779.64 Gg C to 3548.16 Gg C. Investment in ecological urban planning, sustainable cities, and appropriate land-use planning is recommended to curb the degradation and conversion of the surrounding green areas of Rawalpindi and Islamabad.

Habitat degradation and species range contraction due to land use/land cover changes (LULCC) is a major threat to global biodiversity. The ever-growing human population has trespassed deep into the natural habitat of many species via the expansion of agricultural lands and infrastructural development. Carnivore species are particularly at risk, as they demand conserved and well-connected habitat with minimum to no anthropogenic disturbance. In Pakistan, the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is found in three mountain ranges—the Himalayas, Hindukush, and Karakoram. Despite this being one of the harshest environments on the planet, a large population of humans reside here and exploit surrounding natural resources to meet their needs. Keeping in view this exponentially growing population and its potential impacts on at-risk species like the snow leopard, we used geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing with the aim of identifying and quantifying LULCC across snow leopard range in Pakistan for the years 2000, 2010, and 2020. A massive expansion of 1804.13 km2 (163%) was observed in the built-up area during the study period. Similarly, an increase of 3177.74 km2 (153%) was observed in agricultural land. Barren mountain land increased by 12,368.39 km2 (28%) while forest land decreased by 2478.43 km2 (28%) and area with snow cover decreased by 14,799.83 km2 (52%). Drivers of these large-scale changes are likely the expanding human population and climate change. The overall quality and quantity of snow leopard habitat in Pakistan has drastically changed in the last 20 years and could be compromised. Swift and direct conservation actions to monitor LULCC are recommended to reduce any associated negative impacts on species preservation efforts. In the future, a series of extensive field surveys and studies should be carried out to monitor key drivers of LULCC across the observed area.

Bird species richness and diversity are the key factors that determine the health and productivity of an ecosystem. They have occupied a marvelous place, i.e., they play a vital role in the contribution of public consideration towards natural habitats and considered as barometers of an ecosystem. This study was carried out to determine the bird species diversity of the Sheikh Badin National Park, located in District Dera Ismail Khan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. For this purpose, bird watching surveys following line transect method were conducted from June 2018 to July 2019 in the study area. A total 3408 individuals (1260 migrants and 2148 residents) representing the 41 bird species were recorded during the surveys. Among the total, 18 species were migrants and 23 residents, belong to 11 Orders and 25 Families. Passeriformes was the dominant encompass of 19 species (9 native and 10 migrants) and 13 families. This national park harbored species richness was r = 41, Shannon-Weiner diversity index (H′ = 3.546), evenness (J′ 0.955) and Simpson’s Diversity (D = 0.966). The foraging guild results revealed that the granivore (2274) and insectivore (565) were the most abundant bird species. The major threats to the avifauna were illegal hunting, grazing and deforestation.

Determining the bird assemblages is utmost important to identify the adequacy and efficiency of habitats. The line transect method was used to determine patterns of bird relative abundance, diversity indices, and conservation status in Sheikh Badin National Park from November 2017 to December 2019. In total, 7,919 individuals (2,592 migrants and 5,327 inhabitants) representing 42 species and 25 families were enlisted. Of 42 species, 27 were native (i.e., 67.26%) utilizing the study area throughout the year, while the remaining 15 species were migrant (e.g., 32.73%) that used the study area during the winter. Passer domesticus (0.06%), Merops persicus (0.05%), Tachymarptis melba, and Ploceus philippinus (each 0.04%) were the overwhelming bird species. In contrast, Francolinus francolinus (0.02%), Falco tinnunculus (0.008%), and Alectoris chukar (0.005%) were the rarest bird species. All species were identified as “Least Concern” based on IUCN RedList. Diversity results showed birds were assorted a diverse, i.e. H’ = 3.608 (resident birds; H’ = 3.608 and migratory birds; H’ = 2.543), rich; i.e. D = 0.031 (resident birds; D = 0.046 and migratory birds D = 0.093) and evenly distributed J = 0.965 (resident birds, J = 0.967 and migratory birds, J = 0.939). The perceptions of local inhabitants and personnel observation shown that bird species are facing confronting threats due to human endeavor, such as illegal hunting, habitat loss due deforestation, and uncontrolled grazing.