Nighttime temperatures in the Afro-alpine zone (>2050 m) of Kahuzi-Biega National Park frequently fall below 5 degrees C. However, the thermal advantages provided by night nests of Grauer's gorilla, Gorilla beringei graueri along this elevation gradient have yet to be quantified. From 3 January to 7 January 2025, 80 night nests were located along the Mt. Kahuzi-Biega ridge (2000-2650 m above sea level); 66 with complete data were analyzed. Nest-interior and ambient temperatures were measured using calibrated mercury thermometers, while canopy openness was assessed through sky-facing photographs analyzed with ImageJ. Canopy openness ranged from 18% at 2050 m (dense bamboo) to 83% at 2625 m (open ericaceous scrub), with a mean of 50.5 +/- 18.8%. The interiors of the nests consistently exhibited warmer temperatures than the humid ambient air, with a mean temperature difference of 2.03 +/- 0.37 degrees C, ranging from 1.39 to 2.68 degrees C. Linear mixed-model analysis (n = 66) indicated a significant reduction in thermal buffering correlated with increasing elevation (beta = -7.4 & times; 10(-4) degrees C m(-1), 95% CI -8.9 & times; 10(-4) to -5.9 & times; 10(-4), p < 0.001) and greater canopy openness (beta = -0.020 degrees C per %, p < 0.001); fog density and precipitation from the previous night did not exhibit a significant effect. The model explained 78% of the variance in Delta T (marginal R-2). Over a 650 m Afro-alpine gradient, Grauer's gorillas create a 2.0 degrees C thermal refuge, which decreases by approximately 30% near the summit. This study represents the first quantitative evidence that canopy density can mitigate the elevation penalty for any African great ape. Canopy retention is the only terrestrial mechanism that can mitigate accelerated warming at high altitudes, which is occurring at a rate of +0.45 degrees C per decade. Without canopy retention, national conservation strategies for the Democratic Republic of Congo must allocate funds for extended energy subsidies at elevations exceeding 2500 m.

Winter imposes severe ecological constraints on Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra), yet the environmental characteristics of their winter marking sites remain poorly understood. We characterized winter sprainting sites along a human disturbance gradient in Changbai Mountain, northeastern China. In January 2025, 55 sites were recorded along three rivers and assigned to urban or wild river-reach contexts based on the broader spatial and management context of each reach. We measured topographic, hydrological, riparian, fish-diversity, and anthropogenic variables. Broad environmental gradients were summarized using Factor Analysis of Mixed Data (FAMD), and five local variables were compared between river-reach contexts using exploratory tests with Holm adjustment. Of the 55 sites, 54 were beside flowing, unfrozen water. Intermediate-to-deep water, natural banks and forested riparian backgrounds were common. The first two FAMD dimensions explained 52.5% of environmental variation, representing a spatially coupled gradient involving anthropogenic remoteness and river-section fish resource background, and a topographic and channel-structure contrast. Urban and wild sites differed in water depth, bank type, and vegetation cover, while sprainting sites occurred in both. These findings show that winter marking activity was concentrated within accessible river sections embedded in contrasting landscape contexts.

Introduction The structure of biological communities, particularly species diversity, serves as a key monitoring indicator for assessing the effectiveness of restoration in degraded Giant panda habitats. These metrics effectively reflect the trajectory of habitat changes following the implementation of restoration measures, thereby enabling evidence-based evaluation of conservation outcomes. Objectives To quantitatively track the temporal dynamics of these indicators during habitat restoration, we conducted continuous monitoring in five typical restoration areas: Daxiangling, Xiaozhaizigou, Shenguozhuang, Liziping, and Erlangshan from 2022 to 2025. Methods We surveyed vegetation using quadrats and animals using camera traps. We calculated species diversity indices and used non-metric multidimensional scaling and similarity analysis to compare community composition. Linear mixed models and generalized linear mixed models were applied to test treatment effects. Results Herbaceous layer indicators showed significant positive responses to restoration, with herb count (p = 0.046) and herb species count (p = 0.034) significantly higher in restored than control plots. In contrast, the tree, shrub, and bamboo layers showed no significant recovery (p > 0.05), though all indicators exhibited positive effect sizes. Animal community composition showed significant interannual variation (Stress = 0.026, R > 0, p < 0.05), while plant community structure remained relatively stable across years (Stress = 0.088, R = 0.645, p = 0.001) but differed significantly between restored and control plots in 2025 (R = 0.501, p = 0.001). Conclusion Our study indicates that short-term restoration effectively promotes herbaceous layer recovery and increases animal species richness, but tree layer recovery is limited and requires longer timescales.

Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra) occur across Asia, Europe, and northern Africa, yet many populations are declining or endangered. Otter populations in northeast China have decreased substantially over the past 70 years, which is generally attributed to land use change, though this hypothesis remains untested. We examined the relationship between land use and otter occurrence in Jilin Province by characterizing land use in 100-m river buffers extending 7.5 km upstream and downstream from each of the 58 known otter occurrences compared to 100 randomly selected pseudo-absence points across the same landscape. Logistic regression revealed that otters were less likely to occur as agricultural land increased (p = 0.00347). We also observed negative but nonsignificant trends between otter presence and average cropland patch size, percentage of built-up land, and average built-up patch size. A principal component analysis explained 48.7% of total landscape variation and indicated that locations where otters were known to be present were less variable in landscape conditions (i.e. amount and size of agricultural and urbanized patches) compared to random locations. Overall, this ensemble approach suggests that otters are affected by land use at least at a localized scale, complementing other studies within its range. (c) 2025 National Science Museum of Korea (NSMK) and Korea National Arboretum (KNA). Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Beijing has designated the raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) as a protected species, and its protection status has been elevated to the national level in China. However, current knowledge of the species in Beijing is largely derived from localised studies, and region-wide assessments remain lacking, despite its high conservation priority. In particular, understanding species distribution is fundamental to both ecology and conservation. This study evaluated raccoon dog occurrence patterns across environmental gradients and their spatial distribution in northeast Beijing, using Bayesian occupancy models based on camera-trap detection-nondetection data. We examined the effects of environmental and anthropogenic factors; following model selection, minor road density and human population density were retained as key predictors. Predicted relative occupancy probability declined markedly with increasing densities of both variables, suggesting avoidance of human-disturbed areas. Spatial predictions indicated higher predicted relative occupancy probabilities within nature reserves and in the northern part of the study area, while lower predicted occupancy in the southern part reflects the concentration of human-related factors. These findings provide the first region-wide assessment of raccoon dog occupancy in northeast Beijing, highlighting the importance of accounting for anthropogenic pressures. They also provide a regional baseline of raccoon dog distribution and offer insights to inform conservation planning and management.

Eurasian otters, as apex predators in freshwater ecosystems, are crucial to maintaining nutrient cycling and habitat stability. Although Eurasian otters prefer unaltered natural habitats, their adaptive and opportunistic behavior allows them to occupy suboptimal environments, including urbanized areas. As urbanization increases, the pressure on apex carnivores like the Eurasian otter will continue to grow. To date, urban stream restoration plans have not used the Eurasian otter as a keystone species, but given their influence across the trophic levels, Eurasian otter-focused restoration plans could enhance otter populations and overall biodiversity in urban areas. Here, we lay out six principles designed as a template for enhancing urban habitats for Eurasian otters as well as biodiversity. The principles (enhancing habitat structure complexity, restoring natural riparian vegetation and habitats, safeguarding water quality, providing native prey species, reducing otter mortality, and promoting positive public perception) are essential for urban ecosystem regeneration focused on Eurasian otters. Although there have been no urban restoration projects specifically tailored toward Eurasian otters, initiatives based on similar principles have been effective in promoting biodiversity and otter presence. Overall, an urban habitat restoration plan focused on Eurasian otters will not just increase otter presence but biodiversity across all trophic levels.

Raccoon dogs Nyctereutes procyonoides are on the List of National Key Protected Wild Animals as Grade II in China; research on their wild populations is limited despite their conservation significance. In this context, we focused on seasonal activity changes from autumn to winter and their relationship to environmental and mammalian factors. Using 71 trail cameras from 15 October 2023 to 29 February 2024, in the Sizuolou Nature Reserve in Beijing, China, this study is the first to examine these specific aspects within the country. Our findings revealed a statistically significant change in raccoon dog activity from autumn to winter. This suggests they may enter short periods of winter sleep, as indicated by the 20‐day intervals without camera detections. The average re‐photographing interval was 2.62 ± 3.41 (SD) days. In the daily activity pattern, kernel density estimation indicated that raccoon dogs were nocturnal in both seasons; however, daytime activity was observed only in autumn. Our results revealed that proximity to agricultural land negatively affected, and the presence of Siberian roe deer positively influenced, the number of raccoon dog events. Additionally, our results supported the previous categorisation of raccoon dogs into two habitat types, with our study population being near the type that avoids agricultural land. Our findings suggested that raccoon dogs and Siberian roe deer co‐occur due to raccoon dogs preferring habitats that were also favoured by deer.

Climate change, particularly extreme weather events such as floods and droughts, not only has a significant impact on the environment and ecosystems, but also directly affects the distribution of species and their habitats. The response to extreme climate events has become a key issue in current climate change research. This study, conducted between 2022 and 2023, gathered distribution data of bird species in the Maoli Lake Nature Reserve in Hunan through field surveys along waterways. The study combined environmental data and distribution data in the Maximum Entropy Model (MaxEnt) to examine the effects of extreme climate change on bird species' occupied habitats in the region. The study found that changes in environmental conditions lead to significant changes (p < 0.01) in the distribution of habitat suitability values when moisture, wetness, and vegetation are changed. The total absolute change of area from average models was 21,316 ha when projected into minimum environmental conditions and 12,362 ha when projected into maximum environmental conditions. Species with a narrow niche breadth seemed to be more severely affected by changes in environmental conditions. Shoreline supported the most preferred habitat features for many species. The results can provide a basis and reference for bird conservation, climate change adaptation, and effective management in the landscape.

Pelagia noctiluca blooms are a significant ecological event in the Mediterranean, with profound implications for marine ecosystems and coastal economies. This study aims to investigate the interannual and seasonal variability of Pelagia noctiluca bloom patterns along the Moroccan, Algerian, and Tunisian Mediterranean coasts, focusing on the influence of environmental factors such as sea surface temperature, nutrient availability, and oceanographic conditions on bloom intensity and distribution. The analysis reveals significant seasonal and interannual fluctuations in bloom size across the three regions, with the most substantial blooms occurring from June to August during the warmer months. In 2014 and 2018, peak bloom sizes of up to 775 jellyfish per unit area were recorded in Morocco and Algeria, while Tunisia also experienced notable blooms, particularly in 2015 and 2017. However, from 2020 to 2023, a marked decline in bloom intensity was observed across all three regions, with bloom sizes dropping, particularly in Tunisia and Morocco. Correlation analysis of environmental variables showed weak to moderate relationships between bloom size and key factors. Sea surface temperature showed a positive correlation (r = 0.13), suggesting that warmer waters contribute to increased bloom intensity. Nitrate and current direction also exhibited weak positive correlations (r = 0.12 and r = 0.27), indicating that nutrient availability and ocean circulation patterns could enhance bloom formation. The correlations with carbon (r = 0.08) and phosphate (r = 0.04) further suggest that organic matter and nutrient availability play a minor role in supporting bloom growth. On the other hand, negative correlations with factors such as oxygen (r = −0.04), solar radiation (r = −0.04), and wave height (r = −0.05) suggest that these factors may slightly inhibit bloom intensity, possibly by influencing nutrient dynamics and dispersing jellyfish populations. Notably, pH level (r = −0.29) and current speed (r = −0.23) exhibited stronger negative correlations, indicating a more pronounced inhibitory effect. In conclusion, this research highlights the complex and multifactorial nature of Pelagia noctiluca bloom dynamics, where temperature, nutrient availability, and oceanographic conditions interact to influence bloom size and distribution across the Moroccan, Algerian, and Tunisian coasts. While these environmental factors contribute to bloom variability, other ecological and anthropogenic factors likely play a significant role. Further research is necessary to better understand the synergistic effects of climate change, nutrient loading, and biological interactions on jellyfish bloom dynamics in the Mediterranean, with implications for effective management strategies.

Climate change has led to global biodiversity loss, severely impacting all species, including essential pollinators like bees, which are highly sensitive to environmental changes. Like other bee species, A. dorsata is also not immune to climate change. This study evaluated the habitat suitability of A. dorsata under climate change in Pakistan by utilizing two years of occurrence and distribution data to develop a Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model for forecasting current and future habitat distribution. Future habitat projections for 2050 and 2070 were based on two shared socioeconomic pathways (SSP245 and SSP585) using the CNRM-CM6-1 and EPI-ESM1-2-HR-1 global circulation models. Eight bioclimatic variables (Bio1, Bio4, Bio5, Bio8, Bio10, Bio12, Bio18, and Bio19) were selected for modeling, and among the selected variables, the mean temperature of the wettest quarter (Bio8) and precipitation of the warmest quarter (Bio18) showed major contributions to the model building and strongest influence on habitat of A. dorsata. The model estimated 23% of our study area as a suitable habitat for A. dorsata under current climatic conditions, comprising 150,975 km2 of moderately suitable and 49,792 km2 of highly suitable regions. For future climatic scenarios, our model projected significant habitat loss for A. dorsata with a shrinkage and shift towards northern, higher-altitude regions, particularly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the Himalayan foothills. Habitat projections under the extreme climatic scenario (SSP585) are particularly alarming, indicating a substantial loss of the suitable habitat for the A. dorsata of 40% under CNRM-CM6-1 and 79% for EPI-ESM1-2-HR-1 for the 2070 time period. This study emphasizes the critical need for conservation efforts to protect A. dorsata and highlights the species’ role in pollination and supporting the apiculture industry in Pakistan.

Gorillas play important roles in the sustainability of biodiversity and in the cultures of Indigenous communities, offering unique biological behaviors and contributing to forest regeneration. Grauer’s gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) is one of the flagship species of biodiversity in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In this study, we carried out a systematic review to assess the challenges and threats facing Gorilla beringei graueri, as well as conservation strategies. We used search engines such as Google Scholar, Web of Science, Baidu, and China National Knowledge Internet (CNKI) to screen for literature published in the period between 2000 and 2025. We found that the existence of Grauer’s gorilla is under constant threat from an increasing demand for precious minerals, the establishment of mining sites in the forests, and the establishment of new road networks in the gorillas’ range, as well as from poaching, deforestation, and climate change. These pressures have exacerbated the decline of the Grauer’s gorilla population, necessitating attention from both the DRC and the global community to safeguard this endangered species. Several strategies for the conservation of Grauer’s gorilla are already underway in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park; these aim to reduce or contain the threats and challenges facing Grauer’s gorilla. This comprehensive review serves as a recommendation to Indigenous communities, local people, government agencies, conservation NGOs, and the public, encouraging them to understand the consequences of the decline in the Grauer’s gorilla population and to advocate for urgent and effective conservation strategies.

As an indicator and flagship species of freshwater ecosystems, the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) plays a significant role in maintaining the connectivity and stability of ecosystems. However, compared with terrestrial and marine ecosystems, the conservation of freshwater ecosystems and species has not been sufficiently emphasized. In particular, research on the habitats and ecological corridors of semi-aquatic vertebrates remains inadequate. This study employed species distribution models and corridor construction models to predict the distribution range of suitable habitats and identify the ecological corridors and key points for the Eurasian otter in Northeast China. The results showed that our models demonstrated good performance in species distribution model evaluation/validation, with average True Skill Statistic (TSS) and Area Under the Curve (AUC) values of 0.934 and 0.995 respectively. The model predicted that the suitable habitats of the Eurasian otter were mainly distributed along the rivers in the forested mountainous areas including the Daxing'anling Mountains, the Xiaoxing'anling Mountains, and the Changbai Mountains. Moreover, there were 39 core habitats, 42 ecological corridors, 78 pinch points and 19 barrier points identified. Among these, 11.92% of the suitable habitats, 25.83% of the core habitats and 18.66% of the ecological corridors were included in the scope of protected areas, but there were still protection gaps. In the future, anthropogenic disturbances in the Northeast China Forest Belt should be strictly controlled, and the integrated protection of forest and freshwater ecosystems should be strengthened so as to improve ecosystem and species connectivity.

The Altai Mountains region, characterized by its unique biodiversity and significant ecological value, is increasingly under pressure from anthropogenic activities and climate change. This study investigates the spatial and temporal dynamics of forest and grassland ecosystems in the Altai Mountains National Park Candidate Area from 2000 to 2020, and proposes a comprehensive framework for the conservation and management of national parks. Through a detailed analysis of land cover changes, we observed significant forest expansion of 13.65% and grassland degradation of 11.69%. Rapid forest expansion occurred before 2010, followed by accelerated grassland degradation after that, with 2010 identified as the critical turning point. Our analysis highlights the role of key drivers, such as soil type, elevation, cropland expansion, and human activities, in shaping these ecosystems. Using Geodetector and propensity score matching methods, we evaluated the effectiveness of existing protected areas in mitigating forest and grassland loss. While protected areas effectively contributed to forest restoration, they were less successful in preventing grassland decline, underscoring the need for integrated management approaches. The findings from this study provide critical insights into ecosystem dynamics and conservation effectiveness, offering valuable guidance for the establishment of national-park-type protected areas and broader regional conservation efforts.

Temporal niche-partitioning is a key strategy for prey to avoid predators and for predators to successfully coexist sympatrically. However, little is known about the temporal and spatial dynamics of snow leopards with key prey species. We investigated the spring daily activity patterns and spatial density distributions of snow leopard (Panthera uncia), Himalayan ibex (Capra ibex sibirica), and domestic yak (Bos grunniens) to unravel the spatiotemporal behavior within their shared alpine habitat in Northern Pakistan using trail cameras data. The results indicated that snow leopards exhibited a bimodal activity pattern, with peaks around midnight and dawn. In contrast, the ibex displayed a predominantly diurnal pattern, starting at dawn and minimally overlapping with the snow leopard. Attended yaks showed a uniform diurnal activity pattern under human protection, while unattended yaks exhibited irregular activity across day and night, suggesting higher vulnerability to predation. Spatial density analysis revealed notable overlaps between species pairs, particularly unattended yaks and snow leopards, highlighting the influence of spatial dynamics on predator-prey interactions. The clear off-phased and contrasting pattern of activity between snow leopard and ibex in our study showed temporal partitioning in spring and indicates that unattended yak may be a more heavily predated species than previously thought. This study provides the first comparative analysis of temporal activity patterns between a key predator and wild and domestic prey in Northern Pakistan. This research broadens our understanding of animal behavior through the lens of spatiotemporal interactions and provides insights into the complex dynamics between predator and prey in the challenging alpine landscape. Our findings emphasize the importance of livestock guarding to mitigate depredation and highlight the complexities of predator-prey interactions in both time and space, along with the resulting behavioral adaptations.

During monitoring visits to the beaches of Fnideq, M'Diq, Cabo-Negro, and Martil, two jellyfish species along the Moroccan Northwest Mediterranean coast have been observed. Rhizostoma luteum (Quoy JRC, Gaimard JP. Observations zoologiques faites à bord de l'Astrolabe, en mai 1826, dans le Détroit de Gibraltar. Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1827) was recorded at Fnideq in January 2014, and Cotylorhiza tuberculata (Macri S. Nuove osservazioni intorno la Storia naturale del polmone marino, 1778) was recorded between M'Diq and Cabonegro beach in August 2015. Although their occurrence in the Mediterranean Sea is less frequent compared to the outbreaks of Pelagia noctiluca (Forskål P. Descriptiones animalium, avium, amphibiorum, piscium, insectorum, vermium: quae in itinere orientali observavit. ex officina Mölleri; 1775), these findings represent the first documented records of Rhizostoma luteum and Cotylorhiza tuberculata in this region, contributing valuable insights to the existing knowledge of jellyfish distribution in the Mediterranean.

Identifying climatic niche shift and its influencing factors is of great significance in predicting the risk of alien species invasions accurately. Previous studies have attempted to identify the factors related to the niche shift of alien species in their invaded ranges, including changes in introduction history, selection of exact climate predictors, and anthropogenic factors. However, the effect of species-level traits on niche shift remains largely unexplored, especially those reflecting the species' adaptation ability to new environments. Based on the occurrence data of 117 successful alien bird invaders at a global scale, their native and invaded climatic niches were compared, and the potential influencing factors were identified. Our results show the niche overlap was low, with more than 75% of the non-native birds representing climatic niche shift (i.e. >10% niche expansion). In addition, 85% of the species showed a large proportion (mean ± SD, 39% ± 21%) of niche unfilling. Relative brain size (RBS) after accounting for body size had no direct effect on niche shift, but path analysis showed that RBS had an indirect effect on niche shift by acting on behavioral innovation primarily on technical innovation rather than consumer innovation. These findings suggested the incorporation of species' important behavioral adaptation traits may be promising to develop future prediction frameworks of biological invasion risk in response to the continued global change.

As the top predator of freshwater ecosystems, the Eurasian otter (lutra lutra) plays a vital role in maintaining food web structure and ecosystem stability. Understanding the dietary composition and dynamics of the Eurasian otter is crucial for comprehending its ecosystem function and interspecies interactions, providing vital information for determining conservation and management strategies. Currently, DNA metabarcoding technology has been extensively applied in dietary studies as a more effective and accurate method for identifying prey species. However, there remains an insufficient amount of research on otter diet using this technology, especially in Northeast China. In this study, we analyzed the vertebrate dietary composition and spatial variation of otters during the winter in Northeast China using DNA metabarcoding technology. We confirm 106 fecal samples belonging to Eurasian otter DNA from 118 putative otters fecal samples, and then performed polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplifications using vertebrate universal primers with the otter blocking primer (OBS1) and the human blocking primer (HomoB) to the sequence. Subsequently, high-throughput sequencing was performed to analyze the dietary composition of Eurasian otter. We identified a total of 34 prey taxa, including 31 fish, 2 frog and 1bird. Our results showed that the winter diet of the Eurasian otter was dominated by fish (60.11%), (e.g., Cottidae, Cyprinidae), followed by Ranidae (39.88%). Furthermore, geographical variations in dietary preferences were observed. This study confirms that Eurasian otter is a generalist piscivorous predator, and that its diet could be related to the availability of resources in the habitat. This study enriches the information on the diet of Eurasian otter, and can be used to provide a reference for the development of effective conservation strategies. At the same time, it confirms the reliability of the fecal DNA metabarcoding technique for carnivore predation analysis, and provides a new perspective for the investigation and research of otters and other mammals.

Biodiversity loss is a pressing global issue, with protected areas and Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECMs) identified as crucial strategies for conservation. This study investigates the contribution of wilderness networks beyond existing protected areas to biodiversity conservation in Central Asia, proposing a comprehensive framework for wilderness network assessment and identifying potential OECM areas. Using Boolean overlay and weighted linear combination approach, the research delineated core wilderness patches and assessed their spatial relationship with existing protected area. The study employed multi-scenario assessment framework to reconstruct twelve landscape ecological networks, results exposed the potential of wilderness networks as supplementary areas to existing protected area networks. The study also identified 241 critical pinch points essential for maintaining regional wildlife habitat connectivity and species migration. The research advocates for the integration of wilderness networks with OECMs to achieve the 30×30 conservation goal. The study's findings underscore need for additional conservation measures beyond existing protected areas and importance of considering human activity disturbances, maintaining landscape connectivity, as well as evaluating cost-effective conservation strategies. It also highlights the necessity for cross-border collaboration in regional-scale wilderness research. This study contributes to the planning and development of policies for wilderness conservation and provides a replicable framework for similar global assessments.

Wilderness areas are important in maintaining biodiversity, and “retaining existing intact and wilderness areas” is listed as the first of 21 action targets for 2030 in the first draft of the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. However, the quantity and quality of regional-scale wilderness mapping and identification of priority areas for conservation are still insufficient. Here, an approach integrating Boolean and Multi-Criteria Evaluation is used to conduct wilderness mapping, and priority conservation areas are identified based on ecosystem service values and the current status of wilderness protection in protected areas in the state-owned forest region of Daxing’anling. It is found that the wilderness areas account for 96.72% of the total area of the study area, of which high-quality wilderness areas constitute for 50.34% of the total area of wilderness areas, and the quality of wilderness is greatly affected by the railroads. Secondly, wilderness areas have higher ecosystem service values per square kilometer than non-wilderness areas, except for food supply service. In addition, 72.26% of the wilderness areas are not protected, and 52.26% of these high-quality wilderness areas with high ecosystem service values still have conservation gaps. This study can provide data support and scientific reference for future wilderness conservation works in different regions.

Wetlands play a key role in maintaining the ecological security and sustainable economic development for Beijing, the capital city of China. However, the dynamic changes on the wetland ecosystem service values (ESV) in Beijing over the past decades remain unknown. In this research, we analyzed changing trend, the evolution of service types and their driving factors of wetlands ESV in Beijing based on the statistical data from 1984 to 2020 with trend test and gray correlation. The results revealed that the wetlands ESV in Beijing showed a remarkable increasing trend. The wetland ecosystem service types were not set in stone. Although the proportion of the regulation services value decreased by about one-third, it was still the dominant wetlands ecosystem service (ES) type in Beijing. More importantly, socioeconomic development was the most considerable influence on changes in wetland ESV, followed by human activities, and natural factors had the least impact.