Long-term Micro-Erosion Meter (MEM) datasets are commonly summarised using average downwearing rates, masking the hierarchical spatial and temporal variability they contain. We analyse a 13-year micro-erosion meter (MEM) monitoring dataset (2011–2024) from the tectonically stable Otway coast, southeastern Australia, using an integrated statistical framework combining robust linear mixed-effects modelling (RLMM), piecewise (broken-stick) mixed-effects analysis, and hierarchical centred autoregressive AR(1) modelling. The integrated modelling framework developed in this study explicitly resolves spatial hierarchy, non-linear temporal structure, and downwearing memory across nested platforms, MEM bolt sites, and point scales. RLMM results demonstrate strong scale dependence in downwearing variability: point-scale observations exhibit high variance and skewness, whereas platform-scale mean downwearing rates are comparatively stable. Relative to classical mixed-effects models, robust estimation substantially reduces residual variance and moderates slope estimates, indicating that extreme MEM values represent temporary spikes in downwearing rates rather than persistent geomorphic trends. Piecewise modelling identifies an early monitoring phase characterised by elevated downwearing rates, followed by a lower long-term downwearing rate, indicating a distinct transition between early and sustained monitoring phases. Hierarchical centred AR(1) modelling shows that downwearing rates are partly influenced by their previous values at the point (φ₁ = 0.325), site (φ₁ = 0.353), and platform (φ₁ = 0.382) scales, indicating that past downwearing conditions continue to influence present-day downwearing. Using the 2011–2024 MEM record, representing the contemporary monitoring period of the long-term Otway dataset, the hierarchical modelling framework reveals scale-dependent mean downwearing rates of 0.264–0.561 mm/yr, highlighting the value of the approach for resolving spatial and temporal structure. Together, these results demonstrate that MEM-derived downwearing rates provide a statistically robust, process-consistent framework for interpreting long-term shore platform evolution.

The measurement of in situ abrasion has been investigated since the early 20th Century and it is thought to represent a significant loss from coastal sediment budgets of some mixed sediment beaches. Traditional methods of tracking pebbles or cobbles to assess abrasion have numerous shortcomings, however, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) now makes it feasible to track and relocate tagged particles on a beach. In this study, RFID was used to quantify pebble and cobble abrasion on a mixed sand and gravel beach, South Island, New Zealand. A total of 228 greywacke pebbles and cobbles were tagged and released on two occasions on the study beach. Some of these pebbles and cobbles were relocated on the first two days after release and then again at intervals of months with a maximum recovery period of 15 months. Particles were weighed each time they were relocated to assess abrasion and their positions recorded to calculate the distance travelled from the initial release point. The mean daily abrasion rate of pebbles and cobbles was 0.02 %/day in weight, equivalent to 7.30 %/year in weight. A significant correlation was found between abrasion and transport distance and wave energy. These results contribute to the small database of abrasion rates for mixed sediment beaches. The study also provides detailed data on cross-shore and alongshore displacement, as well as burial depth. Comparison with previous studies from around the world suggests that a universally applicable abrasion rate for all mixed beaches is unattainable.

Near-horizontal shore platforms display highly irregular plan shapes, but little is known about the way in which these irregularities influence the significant wave height (Hs) on the platforms and the frequency components of the nearshore wave field. We use a nonlinear Boussinesq wave model to conduct harmonic and bispectral mode decomposition analyses, studying the control of concave and convex platform edges over wind (WW: 0.125 - 0.33 Hz), swell (SW: 0.05 - 0.125 Hz) and infragravity (IG: 0.008 - 0.05 Hz) frequencies. For breaking and non-breaking waves, increasing the platform edge concavity intensified wave divergence and subsequent attenuation of SW and IG across the outer platforms, reducing by up to 25%. Increasing the platform edge convexity intensified focusing and amplification of SW and WW over the outer platforms, increasing by up to 18% and 55% for breaking and non-breaking waves. In the presence of breaking, IG amplification depended on the generation of wave divergence across the inner platform, a condition determined by a critical convex curvature threshold (Κ=1.8) balancing wave focusing from refraction and defocusing from breaking. We find that convex curvature can determine the relative dominance of WW, SW and IG across platforms. Alongshore, coherent wave interactions governed IG stationary patterns defined by a node near the platform centreline and two antinodes on either side of concave edges. A node was generated at the platform centreline, and two antinodes were observed on either side of the convex edges for Κ>1.8, with the opposite pattern observed for Κ<1.8.

Downwearing rates obtained from tectonically active coasts provide evidence of rapid rock breakdown following coseismic uplift. These measurements help solve puzzles about 'missing' marine terraces and have implications for accurate reconstruction of past sea levels, earthquakes and rock coast evolution. However, very few detailed erosion datasets exist for uplifted shore platforms, making it uncertain if erosion records from one coast can be extrapolated to other regions with similar tectonic, geologic, or geomorphic characteristics. Here we present new downwearing rates from an inter-tidal mudstone shore platform at Kahutara Point, M & amacr;hia Peninsula, New Zealand that was uplifted likely by similar to 3 m within the last 300 years. Downwearing rates were measured over 49 months/4.05 years using the Micro-Erosion Meter (MEM) and Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry: the mean annual downwearing rate was 1.08 mm yr(-1), while the total erosion at individual MEM stations ranged from 0.44 to 14.37 mm (equivalent to mean downwearing rates of 0.11 to 3.54 mm yr(-1)). Orthophotographs of the eroded rock surfaces indicate the combined role of marine processes (waves and tides), sub-aerial weathering processes, salt weathering and biological activity in the erosion of the mudstone platform surface. The downwearing rates from Kahutara Point, M & amacr;hia Peninsula are statistically similar to previously published downwearing rates (1.23 mm yr(-1)) from mudstone platforms at Kaik & omacr;ura Peninsula, New Zealand, that were obtained prior to the 2016 Kaik & omacr;ura earthquake, but are significantly different from perturbed post-uplift downwearing rates (2.25 mm yr(-1)) obtained from the same MEM stations following coseismic uplift of similar to 1 m. This work provides valuable data to support comparison of the development of shore platforms and marine terraces at Kaik & omacr;ura and M & amacr;hia at different stages of their tectonic evolution.

The risk exposure to rip currents may be reduced by increasing beach users’ ability to effectively identify the presence of rips. Static photographs have been widely used to assess and improve beach users’ identification ability, however this has not led to an overall increase in skill. This pilot study assesses the public’s knowledge of rip currents using two different media types and whether static or moving images make it more (or less) easier to identify rips. A questionnaire was used to assess the rip current identification ability of respondents while at the beach. Short video clips (15-seconds) were found to be no more effective for the identification of rips than photographs, and 50% of respondents were not able to identify rips in either photographs or videos, although some sub-populations of respondents, (those who regularly use rips in surfing activities or those with previous rip education), were slightly better at rip identification. Methodologies that test beach users rip identification competencies may benefit from using a mixture of media to discern rip identification ability more effectively, as confirmation bias may be present in small samples.

Coastal boulder deposits provide vital information on extreme wave events. They are crucial for understanding storm and tsunami impacts on rocky coasts, and for understanding long-term hazard histories. But study of these deposits is still a young field, and growth in investigation has been rapid, without much contact between research groups. Therefore, inconsistencies in field data collection among different studies hinder cross-site comparisons and limit the applicability of findings across disciplines. This paper analyses field methodologies for coastal boulder deposit measurement based using an integrated database (ISROC-DB), and demonstrates inconsistencies in current approaches. We use the analysis as a basis for outlining protocols to improve data comparability and utility for geoscientists, engineers, and coastal planners. Using standardised and comprehensive data reporting with due attention to precision and reproducibility - including site characteristics, boulder dimensions, complete positional data, tide characteristics, and geodetic and local topographic datum information - will help ensure complete data retrieval in the field. Applying these approaches will further ensure that data collected at different times and/or locations, and by different groups, is useful not just for the study being undertaken, but for other researchers to analyse and reuse. We hope to foster development of the large, internally consistent datasets that are the basis for fruitful meta-analysis. This is particularly important given increasing focus on long-term monitoring of coastal change. By recommending a common set of measurements, adaptable to available equipment and personnel, this work aims to support accurate and thorough coastal boulder deposit documentation, enabling broader applicability and future-proofed datasets. Field protocols described and recommended here also apply as best practices for coastal geomorphology field work in general.

Micro-scale surface changes of bedrock on shore platform have been widely monitored with micro-erosion meters (MEMs) and traversing micro-erosion meters (TMEMs) over different temporal scales. At short-term temporal scale of hours to days, rock surface behaviors are characterized by dynamic fluctuations without net surface lowering, while significant downwearing are commonly observed over several (>= 2) years. Therefore, there is a temporal gap between the short-term (hours to weeks) and long-term (months to years) surface behaviors over which grain detachment is suggested to occur. In this laboratory study, a sandstone was placed in a simulated upper intertidal condition, in which the rock sample experienced 2-h immersion with subsequent 2-week exposure over a 14-day spring tidal cycle. By running this spring tidal cycle for 6 times (12 weeks) over the experiment, the microtopography of the rock surface was monitored before and after the 2-h immersion period and at a weekly scale over the exposure period of each tidal cycle to understand the influence of tidal immersion and weekly surface changes on rock weathering and erosion at longer monthly timescales. This is to provide insights into the association between rock surface dynamics (weathering) and grain removal (erosion) to identify the temporal threshold for rock decay to initiate. Immersed under sea water and deionized water respectively, the rock sample was then exposed in an environmental chamber through manipulation of temperature and air humidity in controlled measures, generating four different treatments in the experiment. This design also aims to test the primary weathering process in driving the fast downwearing of shore platform observed at the upper intertidal zone along the Otway coast. Results showed that significant microtopographic changes of -0.392 to +0.484 mm were observed on the sandstone surface at the weekly scale. These weekly surface changes were initiated with dynamic surface movements of lower magnitude operating at finer hourly timescales. Rock decay occurred with surface rising movement at the weekly-monthly scale. This could be caused by repeated short-term surface changes associated with weathering processes during the exposure period, generating loose/weakened grains which are subsequently removed by waves during the following tidal immersion period. As more occurrences of rock decay over longer monitoring period, the heterogeneous pattern of rock surface changes at hourly scale evolved to a more homogeneous pattern at monthly scale. Salt weathering under sustained drying periods for days to weeks is suggested to be the primary process driving the fast erosion in the upper intertidal zone but the role of thermal weathering with high temperatures cannot be ignored. All these weathering processes are controlled and facilitated by tidal inundation frequency and wave processes in the coastal zone.

Oblique terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) enables topographic change detection at scales (10- 1 -100 cm) that are appropriate for coastal cliff erosion monitoring. Despite this, published applications of TLS on cliff are limited to a small number of sites around the world. Here we report new TLS point cloud datasets from 9 years of monitoring (2014-2023) at Rothesay Bay within the Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand, which has relatively low wave energy and a meso-tidal range. The 120 m-length scan area includes cliffs of 10-30 m height, formed of horizontally bedded soft sedimentary flysch rock. The cliffs are fronted by an 140 m wide near-horizontal shore platform that terminates in an abrupt seaward edge. Previous research at this site has estimated long-term cliff erosion rates within a range of 1.4 +/- 0.1 to 14.3 +/- 0.1 mm/year on the basis of measured shore platform width, assuming that the shore platform has widened over time over 6000 years of stable Holocene sea level, and that the seaward edge of the shore platform has not retreated. Volumetric cliff-face erosion rates were detected through 17 scans over a 9-year window (2014-2023), including intensive monthly TLS scanning between July 2021 and July 2022. Results show that the average cliff recession rate over the past decade has been 41 +/- 2 mm/ year, and monthly scans show a range in erosion rates of 30 to 288 mm/year. The cliff recession rate detected with TLS is 3 to 30 times higher than erosion rates derived based on the shore platform width. If erosion had been constant at this rate over approximately 6000 years, a total cliff retreat of >245 m would be expected, whereas the contemporary shore platform is only 140 m wide. We discuss two possible hypotheses for the confounding width of the modern shore platform: 1) that modern cliff retreat rates are faster than past erosion rates; 2) that the seaward edge of the shore platform does not reliably demarcate Holocene cliff recession. We present new bathymetric survey mapping seaward of the shore platform edge that reveals multiple rocky features that are distinguished by steep slope breaks and planar surfaces. Understanding the evolution of the intertidal shore platforms during the Holocene era may necessitate new insights on how cliffs formed toward the end of the last marine transgression. This could potentially be investigated through the study of subtidal marine bathymetry.

It is often assumed that future coastal cliff retreat rates will accelerate as global sea level rises, but few studies have investigated how SLR (sea level rise) might change cliff-front wave dynamics. Using a new simple numerical model, this study simulates the number and type (breaking, broken, or unbroken) of cliff-front waves under future SLR scenarios. Previous research shows breaking waves deliver more energy to cliffs than broken waves, and unbroken waves generate minimal impact. Here, we investigated six cliff-platform profiles from three regions (USA, New Zealand, and UK) with varied tidal ranges and wave climates. Model inputs included 2013-2100 hindcast/forecast incident wave height and tidal water level, and three future SLR scenarios. Results show the number of both cliff-front breaking and broken waves generally increase for a high-elevation (relative to tide) cliff-platform junction. In contrast, breaking/broken wave occurrence decrease by 38-92% for a near-horizontal shore platform with a low-elevation cliff-platform junction under a high SRL scenario, leading to high (96-97%) unbroken wave occurrence. Overall, results suggest the response of cliff-front waves to future SLR is complex and depends on shore platform geometries and SLR scenarios, indicating that future cliff retreat rates may not homogeneously accelerate under SLR.

The youngest uplifted marine terrace at Kahutara Point on M & amacr;hia Peninsula, New Zealand, is undergoing rapid retreat (backwear) despite being fronted by a wide contemporary shore platform that attenuates wave energy. In this paper, wave energy and water level were recorded across the shore platform, and these data were used to model (a) how frequently waves reach the terrace riser and potentially erode it and (b) how frequently waves overtop the terrace. Analyses of wave data across shore normal transects show that under quiescent and storm conditions >90% of the energy delivered to the back beach and terrace riser is at infragravity frequencies (i.e., <0.05 Hz). Significant wave heights are reduced in a landward direction for both gravity (H-m0H) and infragravity (H-m0L) wave frequencies, with 50%-80% of H-m0H and 20%-50% of H-m0L reduced between seaward and landward sensors. Wave energy during quiescent conditions is strongly attenuated at the seaward margin whereas under storm conditions, proportionally more energy is delivered to the marine terrace riser. The development of a simple inundation model at M & amacr;hia reveals that the northern flank of Kahutara Point is more vulnerable to wave inundation, with 17 storms overtopping the youngest marine terrace between 1980 and 2020. Furthermore, despite there being no evidence of a 1-in-100 year storm event occurring at M & amacr;hia since 1980, there has been an increase in storminess since 2013. Changes in storm frequency may have offset decreases in wave energy (from energy attenuation) with increased platform width associated with marine terrace retreat.

Sediment transport to the sea by rivers is crucial for the stability of estuaries and coasts. The Yangtze River, the largest river in China, like many large rivers worldwide, is experiencing a decrease in sediment load reaching the coast. However, the tidal flat around Qidong Cape, located at the entrance of the North Branch of the Yangtze Estuary, is undergoing extensive siltation. The source of this sediment is unclear. In this study, a sediment core was collected and the geochemical characteristics of rare earth elements (REE) were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The results indicate the following: (1) The average content of REE is 178.57 μg/g, and the average ratio between LREE and HREE is 8.66, which is comparable to sediments from the South Yellow Sea. The chondrite-normalized and UCC-normalized patterns resemble those of the Yangtze River and the South Yellow Sea, indicating a negative gradient, a weak Ce-negative anomaly, and a distinct Eu-negative anomaly. (2) The continental shelf deposits in eastern China are primarily derived from sediment flux delivered by rivers. The sediments in the South Yellow Sea mainly originate from the Yangtze River and the Yellow River, exhibiting characteristics of a mixed source due to long-term geological processes, namely geochemical processes. The REEs in the tidal flat around Qidong Cape inherit the source area’s characteristics and originate from the weathering of upper continental rock in mainland China. Moreover, the tidal flat around Qidong Cape is influenced by both runoff and tidal actions, leading to strong land–sea interactions and reducing the environment, explaining the Eu-negative anomaly. (3) Hydrodynamic forces in the North Branch of the Yangtze River have shifted from runoff to tidal dominance since the 1930s. However, marine hydrodynamics outside the estuary have remained unchanged. Consequently, the Subei coastal current plays a key role in sediment transport and diffusion. Sediments from the south wing of the Radiative Sand Ridge in the South Yellow Sea are transported southward by the Subei coastal current, and under tidal influence, suspended sediment is deposited in the tidal flat around Qidong Cape. Therefore, the sediment source has gradually shifted from the Yangtze River to the South Yellow Sea.

Almar and colleagues (2023) are correct in stating that, “understanding and predicting shoreline evolution is of great importance for coastal management.” Amongst the different timescales of shoreline change, the interannual and decadal timescales are of particular interest to coastal scientists as they reflect the integrated system response to the Earth’s climate and its natural modes of variability. Therefore, establishing the links between shoreline change and climate variability at the global scale would be a major achievement. However, we find that the work of Almar et al.1 does not achieve this goal because: (i) the satellite-based method does not meet the current standards of practice and produces inaccurate results, (ii) the spatial coverage of the shoreline dataset is not adequate for a global analysis, (iii) the relevance of the statistical analyses between the shoreline data and independent variables is questionable, and (iv) the findings do not capture physical patterns of shorelines developed from field-based observations.

Shore platforms are generally supply-limited environments and few studies have attempted to measure sediment transport within this rock coast setting. This paper summarises a field-based pilot study that successfully collected fine-grain sediment moving across a sub-horizontal platform at Mudstone Bay, Kaiko over bar ura, New Zealand. Two large-aperture and two small-aperture Time-Integrated Mass-sediment Samplers (TIMS) were deployed for 9-days, encompassing 2 days of storm conditions (offshore significant wave heights between 2.0 and 3.6 m, with sediment trapped in both landward and seaward facing directions. The net flux of sediment captured in large aperture samplers was greatest in a seaward-direction (15.2 g), whereas the narrow-mouth samplers, that principally collected suspended sediment had a net onshore flux (5.4 g). The sediment traps yielded sufficient sample to undertake geochemical and textural analysis. Interpretation of these data suggests that the origin of transported material was autochthonous to the platform, being >80 % silt-sized and compositionally consistent with material derived from the shore platform and/or cliff colluvium. This pilot experiment demonstrates that mass-sediment samplers can be used in supply-limited intertidal shore platform settings. Further research involving greater sampling frequency and duration and concomitant detailed hydrodynamic measurements are likely to reveal important insights into the erosion environment.

&lt;p&gt;Recent erosion rates from tectonically active coasts provide evidence of rapid rock breakdown following coseismic uplift. These rates are needed to solve puzzles about &#039;missing&#039; marine terraces that prevent accurate reconstruction of past sea levels, earthquakes and rock coast evolution. Yet little scientific effort has been put into investigating the impact of tectonism on shore platform development. It is also presently unclear if erosion records from one coast can be extrapolated to other regions with similar tectonic, geologic, or geomorphic characteristics. We present shore platform downwearing rates and processes measured using the traversing micro-erosion meter (TMEM) and Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry from an inter-tidal shore platform uplifted by 3.1 m between 100 to 300 years ago. The site is a mudstone platform at Kahutara Point, M&amp;#257;hia Peninsula, North Island, New Zealand. Over 1.43 years, the mean annual downwearing rate was 1.94 mm/yr, while the total erosion at individual TMEM stations ranged from 0.29 to 8.31 mm (equivalent to mean erosion rates of 0.07 to 5.82 mm/yr). We found a lack of any spatial pattern in erosion rates cross-shore, suggesting the equal efficiency of waves and weathering processes. Orthophotographs of the eroded rock surfaces support the combined role of marine processes (waves and tides), sub-aerial weathering processes, salt weathering and biological activity in the erosion of the mudstone platforms at Kahutara Point. The mean erosion rate of 1.94 mm/yr from the M&amp;#257;hia Peninsula is similar to the mean post-uplift rate of 2.25 mm/yr reported for the Kaik&amp;#333;ura Peninsula, New Zealand, where platforms were uplifted by ~1 m in 2016. This result suggests a comparable pattern of erosion response at both sites following co-seismic uplift and provides the first field evidence to support the comparison of the Kaik&amp;#333;ura and M&amp;#257;hia shore platforms, thus helping to inform marine terrace development and destruction.&lt;/p&gt;

Global environmental change is identified as a driver of physical transformation of coral reef islands over the past half-century, and next 100 years, posing major adaptation challenges to island nations. Here we resolve whether these recent documented changes in islands are unprecedented compared with the pre-industrial era. We utilise radiometric dating, geological, and remote sensing techniques to document the dynamics of a Maldivian reef island at millennial to decadal timescales. Results show the magnitude of island change over the past half-century (±40 m movement) is not unprecedented compared with paleo-dynamic evidence that reveals large-scale changes in island dimension, shape, beach levels, as well as positional changes of ±200 m since island formation ~1,500 years ago. Results highlight the value of a multi-temporal methodological approach to gain a deeper understanding of the dynamic trajectories of reef islands, to support development of adaptation strategies at timeframes relevant to human security.

Investigations comparing surface downwearing rates derived from photogrammetry data and the micro-erosion meters (MEM) are limited due to the former's coarse spatial resolution and the temporal scale of data collection. These space and time limitations were revisited with the possibility of simultaneously using the Structure-from-Motion (SfM) photogrammetric workflow and the MEM. Using a cross-scale nested survey approach over one year to cover micro (10(-2) m(2)) and meso (10(0) m(2))-spatial scales, this paper presents erosion rates on uplifted intertidal shore platforms and marine terraces at Kaikoura Peninsula, New Zealand. The survey represents one of the first investigations combining the MEM and the SfM technique to estimate erosion rates on horizontal coastal bedrock. In a unique way, we applied established methods which allowed comparative accuracy between models via similar point matching to provide a detailed representation and visualisation of the changing rock surfaces at similar spatial and temporal scales. Over one year, across a microscale area (similar to 0.01 m(2)) of rock, the MEM and SfM point clouds (SfM PCs) measured the lowest and highest erosion rates on a similar rock type and erosion site. The mean annual erosion rate of 2.244 mm/yr from the MEM was lower than the rates of 2.608 mm/yr and 10.299 mm/yr estimated using the SfM micro- and mesoscale PCs, respectively. A lower range of erosion rates (0.131 to 4.750 mm/yr) was measured using the MEM compared to erosion rates estimated from the SfM microscale PCs (0.194 to 10.106 mm/yr). Across the mesoscale (1 m(2)) areas, higher erosion rates were recorded using the SfM mesoscale PCs on all but one erosion site showing that a significant amount of erosion was undetected by the MEM. Using the SfM-orthomosaics, we link the erosion rates measured across the micro and mesoscale areas to intense granular disintegration, flaking, micro- and polygonal cracking and biological activities. These results provide statistical evidence to argue against extrapolating MEM erosion data obtained over small areas to larger areas on shore platforms affected by recent tectonic uplift. The implications of these findings are considered within the context of techniques for measuring shore platform erosion across spatial and temporal scales.

Shore platforms fronting cliffs have highly irregular planform configurations that could modify the alongshore distribution of wave energy, thereby influencing cliff erosion. However, research aiming to understand the geomorphological control of platform morphology on two-dimensional wave transformation remains scarce. We conducted detailed wave measurements within the intertidal zone of three commonly observed mesoscale planform geometries (straight, concave and convex seaward edges). Waves were measured using a phased array of pressure transducers near the seaward edge of three near-horizontal shore platforms in New Zealand. Waves were analysed at infragravity (IG: 0.002-0.05 Hz) and swell frequencies (SW: 0.05-0.125 Hz), with wave energy derived from the zeroth moment wave height, directional wave spectra derived from the Extension of the Maximum Entropy Method and phase lag derived from the cross-spectrum characteristics. Results showed that wave translation occurred on the straight edge platform, divergence on the concave platform, and convergence on the convex platform. These patterns generated areas of wave ray convergence and divergence over the platforms. Wave energy convergence coincided with increased IG energy and reduced SW energy decay, whereas divergence had the opposite effects. Wave reflection generated cross-shore standing IG waves, for which nodal states varied alongshore with platform width. These phenomena resulted in alongshore variations in normalised wave energy (E) over the three platforms, which were more pronounced for IG than for SW. Compared to the straight platform, alongshore variations of IG were twice as large on the concave platform and three times larger on the convex platform. This study shows that planform morphology impacts along-platform wave energy dis-tribution. These effects likely influence planform rock coast evolution and should be considered in future nu-merical modelling studies.