The widespread application of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastics has generated severe environmental challenges while also providing abundant precursor resources for the sustainable production of carbon materials. This review systematically summarizes state‐of‐the‐art research progress in preparing high‐performance carbon nanomaterials using waste PET as a precursor. It highlights the key characteristics of PET as a carbon source and elucidates its underlying carbonization mechanisms. Core carbonization strategies for converting waste PET into carbon materials, including porous carbon, carbon nanosheets, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and their derivatives, are discussed. The effects of key parameters, such as carbonization temperature, activator type and dosage, catalysts, and reaction atmospheres, on the physicochemical properties of the final carbon materials are also analyzed. Furthermore, potential applications of waste PET‐derived carbon materials are discussed. By integrating contemporary research paradigms, this review underscores the significance of techno‐economic analysis and life cycle assessment in evaluating the sustainability of PET‐derived carbon materials. Finally, future perspectives are summarized to provide a strategic reference for waste PET resource recycling and its green transformation into carbon materials.

Although widely applied in diverse industries, conventional fire-retardant coatings generally suffer from poor adhesion and fire protection. These coatings are typically phosphorus-containing and non-recyclable, making their waste prone to causing environmental issues, e.g., bioaccumulation and (micro)plastic pollution. Inspired by the multi-non-covalent adhesion mechanism of ticks, we designed a strongly adhesive and self-healing coating (DCNC/40PEN) with superior fire protection by incorporating hydrogen bonding, π-π stacking, and cation-π interactions. Incorporating these interactions into a dynamic covalent network further imparts closed-loop recyclability and biodegradability to the coating. DCNC/40PEN can adhere to diverse substrates and self-heal at room temperature due to the non-covalent and covalent interactions within its structure. DCNC/40PEN features closed-loop recyclability and biodegradation because of its dynamic covalent network. Owing to the catalytic and crosslinking carbonization of sulfonate and Schiff base groups, phosphorus-free DCNC/40PEN delivers exceptional fire protection for various materials, e.g., wood, polymer foams, and steel. At a coating thickness of 100 μm, DCNC/40PEN significantly increased the limiting oxygen index and vertical combustion (UL-94) rating of wood to 35.0 % and V-0. The multifunctionality and sustainability of DCNC/40PEN enable it to outperform commercial and reported fire-retardant coatings and adhesives. This work presents an innovative design strategy for the next generation of sustainable, versatile fire-retardant coatings, accelerating “green” development.

Epoxy resins (EPs) are widely used in structural and functional applications due to their excellent mechanical properties, chemical resistance, and dimensional stability. However, their inherent flammability and non-recyclability pose significant fire safety and environmental challenges. The emergence of dynamic covalent chemistry and advanced flame-retardant strategies has enabled the design of EP systems with both recyclability and intrinsic flame retardancy. Nevertheless, the introduction of reversible dynamic covalent bonds to facilitate network adaptability often compromises structural integrity, resulting in increased susceptibility to creep and deteriorated in-service performance (e.g., mechanical properties, thermal stability, and durability). This review outlines the state-of-the-art research on flame-retardant, recyclable EPs in recent years and highlights feasible and potential strategies to improve the creep resistance and in-service performance of flame-retardant, recyclable EPs. Finally, potential future development directions for the development of flame-retardant, recyclable and high-stability EPs are proposed.

Respiratory rates play a crucial role in health assessment and rehabilitation. However, current respiratory monitoring devices often rely on metal- or polymer-based sensors, and skin-mounted electronics, face challenges such as low sensitivity, limited durability/stability, and substantial power demands in complex respiratory environments. Herein, we introduce innovations in design and fabrication of a hollow-square cubic silicon carbide (3C-SiC)-based self-powered sensor, which operates via the Seebeck effect in 3C-SiC/Si heterojunction, for respiratory rate monitoring. Through manipulating thermal transport, this design significantly enhances airflow sensing performance, yielding a thermal voltage output approximately 3.5 times higher than that of conventional solid structures. The sensor exhibits remarkable repeatability and durability, maintaining stable voltage responses across 1000 airflow testing cycles. Moreover, elevated temperatures drive a transition from conventional Seebeck effect in a single semiconductor layer to heterojunction-driven effects, resulting in a higher thermal voltage and enabling further sensor optimization under high-temperature environments. By integrating this hollow-square 3C-SiC sensor into a functional mask, the sensor enables real-time monitoring respiratory rate of workers in hot environments. An integrated alarm system provides alerts to the users in response to sudden changes in their respiratory rates, offering a reliable and practical tool for continuous health surveillance of workers in high-temperature environments.

Vinyl ester resins (VERs) are widely used in various industries owing to their excellent mechanical properties and chemical resistance. However, their inherent flammability severely restricts further application, and conventional flame retardants often enhance fire safety at the cost of mechanical and thermal performance. Herein, a reactive ammonium polyphosphate (APP) derivative (MDO) with abundant C--C bonds was synthesized by grafting maleic anhydride onto the surface of an amine-modified APP (DO). The resulting MDO not only acts as an efficient flame retardant but also participates in the curing of VER through radical copolymerization. With the addition of only 22 wt% MDO, the 22% MDO/VER composite achieves a vertical burning (UL-94) V-0 rating and a high limiting oxygen index (LOI) of 28.5%, accompanied by remarkable reductions in peak heat release rate (PHRR), total heat release (THR), peak smoke production rate (PSPR) and total smoke production (TSP) compared to the neat VER. More importantly, introducing MDO enhances the tensile strength (49% improvement), flexural strength (56% improvement), and impact strength (19% improvement) of VER while effectively maintaining the glass transition temperature (Tg, 115 degrees C). The dual enhancement originates from the reactive crosslink sites of MDO that improve the interfacial compatibility and promote condensed-phase charring. This work provides a rational strategy to fabricate high-performance VER composites with superior fire retardancy, outstanding mechanical properties and well-preserved thermal performance.

To mitigate the environmental impact of plastic pollution and paper waste, developing bioplastics from wastepaper as alternatives to non-degradable petroleum-based plastics is of great importance. However, current wastepaper recycling faces challenges such as complex preparation processes, low efficiency, suboptimal performance, and limited scalability. In this work, we present a facile and scalable direct hot-press transformation approach to directly convert wastepaper into thermally processable, transparent, and high-performance bioplastics. This approach involves the cleavage of the cellulose ring structure in wastepaper, followed by hot-pressing under mild conditions. The resultant bioplastics demonstrate excellent thermal processability and tunable mechanical properties (with tensile strengths ranging from 85.7 to 103.2 MPa) and thus can be converted into rigid containers or flexible packaging bags without the need for adhesives. They also exhibit high optical transparency, good water resistance, repairability and biodegradability. This work provides a streamlined direct transformation strategy to produce thermally processible, transparent and mechanically robust bioplastics, offering a scalable avenue to transform waste papers into bioplastics for sustainable packaging.

The design of flame-retardant nanohybrids for the synergistic enhancement on fire retardancy and mechanical properties of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) remains a critical challenge. In this study, an organic-inorganic phosphorus nanohybrids (HAP-g-DOPO) were successfully prepared via the hydrothermal synthesis of hydroxyapatite (HAP) nanorods and the followed chemical grafting of organic phosphorus (KH560-DOPO). Fourier transformation infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirmed the successful synthesis of HAP-g-DOPO. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) demonstrated that the grafted KH560-DOPO reached a high content of 43.89 wt%. Subsequently, the as-prepared nanohybrids was used to fabricate PLA/HAP-g-DOPO nanocomposites. As the optimal sample, PLA/6HAP-g-DOPO exhibited significantly improved fire retardancy, achieving a limited oxygen index (LOI) of 29.5%, UL-94 V0 rating, and 50.3% reduction of the peak heat release rate (PHRR) in cone calorimeter test. According to the analysis of volatile gases and char residues, the HAP-g-DOPO in PLA nanocomposites was revealed to exert both gas-phase and condensed-phase flame-retardant mechanisms. Notably, the flame retarded PLA/6HAP-g-DOPO also achieved remarkably improved mechanical performances after a pre-stretching process, combining good stiffness with superior toughness. Its Young's modulus, tensile strength, elongation at break and the impact strength increased by 11.7%, 35.9%, 2107% and 382%, respectively, compared to pristine undraw PLA. This study provides an innovative and highly efficient strategy to balance fire retardancy and mechanical properties of PLA nanocomposites, thereby holding broad prospects for industrial applications.

The rational design of advanced nanofillers to balance the flame retardancy and mechanical properties of polymer nanocomposites remains a critical challenge. Herein, a green ball-milling route was proposed to covalently encapsulate red phosphorus (RP) into porous carbon black (CB), and the as-synthesized hybrid (CB-g-P) was utilized to simultaneously enhance flame retardancy and mechanical properties of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) nanocomposites. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) collectively confirmed the successful covalent encapsulation between RP and CB. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) demonstrated the efficiently grafted phosphorus in CB-g-P, with the content of 54.11 wt%. Furthermore, PLA nanocomposites with only 2 wt% CB-g-P exhibited excellent flame retardancy, as evidenced by the limiting oxygen index (LOI) value of 28.8%, V0 rating in the UL-94, and 46.9% reduction for the peak of heat release rate (PHRR) compared with neat PLA. The flame-retardant mechanism was ascribed to the synergistic effects of CB-g-P in both gas phase and condensed phase. Meanwhile, the PLA/2CB-g-P underwent a brittle-to-tough transition upon uniaxial pre-stretch treatment, thereby endowing it with superior mechanical properties. Relative to original undrawn PLA, it displayed simultaneous increments in Youngꞌs modulus (+15.0%), tensile strength (+36.5%) and the elongation at break (20‑fold enhancement). This work develops an eco-friendly and efficient strategy to synthesize novel nanofiller for functional PLA nanocomposites, which greatly facilitates their practical application as high-performance, fire-safe biodegradable materials.

The development of sustainable and versatile formaldehyde-free bio-based adhesives is currently a research focus in materials science. However, their practical extensive applications are often limited by their high brittleness and poor performance. Inspired by the robust structure of the meniscus (composed of a rigid framework of interwoven collagen fibers and a flexible buffer layer of the glycosaminoglycan matrix), this study utilizes poly(ethylene glycol itaconate) (EIA) synthesized from itaconic acid derived from the fermentation of crop straws as a buffer layer. Through hydrogen bonding, EIA is introduced into the rigid cross-linked network of soy protein, resulting in the development of a robust adhesive (SM/EIA). The adhesion work of the optimized SM/EIA adhesive was increased by 458% (0.424 J), demonstrating superior toughness. The dry/wet shear strength reached 2.05 MPa and 1.13 MPa, representing increases of 37.6% and 289.7%, respectively, exhibiting exceptional bonding capabilities for wood substrates. The as-designed adhesive also shows versatile bonding performance for diverse substrates, including ceramics and metals. Additionally, it exhibited excellent water retention, coating applicability, and pre-press performance, along with notable mold resistance and flame-retardant properties. Combined with life cycle assessment, the biomimetic design offers novel perspectives for advancing adhesive systems, facilitating the replacement of conventional petroleum-based adhesives through systematic integration of renewable resources and structural bioinspiration.

In view of the prominent issues in compatibility, sustainability, and performance stability of existing polymerbased electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding films, this work proposes a strategy for preparation of a series of novel flame retardant and EMI shielding composite films, which were fabricated using cellulose nanofibers (CNF)/MXene/chitosan-modified hollow glass microspheres (HGM@CS) as the matrix, and flameretardant thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU/APP-NH2@LDH) as the encapsulation shell. The results demonstrated that the CNF/MXene/HGM@CS/TPU/APP-NH2@LDH (CMxHTA) composite films exhibited good hydrophobicity (with a water contact angle of 100.6 degrees), and superior flame retardancy. The peak heat release rate and total heat release of as-prepared CM2HTA composite film were decreased by 53.0% and 52.2%, respectively, compared with those of pure CNF/TPU composite film. The improvement in flame-retardant performance is attributed to the synergistic mechanism of APP-NH2@LDH, HGM@CS, and MXene in both the gas phase and the condensed phase. Due to the electromagnetic shielding mechanism of "surface reflection-internal absorption", the values of EMI shielding effectiveness of the CM3HTA composite film reached 43.5 dB and 56.7 dB in the Xband and K-band, respectively, far exceeding the requirements for commercial shielding materials (>= 20 dB). This study provides a new approach for developing high-performance, multifunctional, and environmentally friendly electromagnetic shielding composites in the application of electronic protection, smart packaging and wearable devices, etc.

Artificial intelligence (AI) has demonstrated great potential for discovering new flame retardants (FRs) for polymers. While existing AI can describe flame retardancy of FRs, it has been unable either to generate new FR molecules with desired performances or predict their impacts on mechanical strength and glass transition temperature ( Tg ) of polymer matrices. To fill this knowledge gap, we, herein, propose a generative artificial intelligence (GAI)-based de novo molecular design approach (GAI4FR) to generate new FR molecules for commercially important epoxy (EP) resins. Also, a descriptive AI model is trained using existing works to predict impacts of AI-generated FR molecules on flame retardancy, tensile strength ( sigma t ), and Tg of EP, enabling the identification of three FR molecules with better overall performances. The as-identified FR molecules are then synthesized, and their predicted performances are well-validated. We further demonstrate the application of as-prepared flame-retardant EP-coated wood sheets as heat shields for preventing thermal runaway of lithium-ion battery (LIB) packs. The coated wood shows equally desirable thermal protection for LIB packs to commercial counterparts. This work offers a groundbreaking GAI4FR framework for creating next-generation high-performance flame retardants for various flammable polymers and opens the door to discovering many other functional materials. (c) 2026 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The editorial office of Journal of Materials Science & ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )

Biobased aerogels show great potential to replace traditional petrochemical-based thermal insulation materials due to their sustainability and comparable physical properties. Unfortunately, their insufficient compressive strength (often < 0.5 MPa) and high flammability limit their practical applications. To bridge this gap, we here report a bottom-up biomimetic mineralization strategy to prepare biobased aerogel (SiB@CC) by impregnating chitin/chitosan aerogels with sodium silicate and borax, followed by freeze-drying and thermal cross-linking. The SiB@CC aerogels exhibit high compressive strength (up to 2.25 MPa) and exceptional energy absorption. The aerogel can withstand 81 000 times of its own weight without failure, and its energy absorption efficiency is superior to that of most polymers, metals, and ceramics. Benefiting from the ability to form a robust organic-inorganic char layer, the SiB@CC aerogels exhibit excellent fire resistance and cannot be ignited, with a limiting oxygen index value exceeding 90%. Moreover, the aerogel shows exceptionally high-temperature thermal insulation, as evidenced by a backside temperature of only 130 degrees C after 600 s continuous exposure to similar to 1300 degrees C flame. This work offers a promising biomimetic approach for preparing bio-based aerogels combining high-strength, fire-resistant, and super thermal insulation, which is expected to find great potential for sustainable high-temperature thermal insulation.

The rapid development of 5G communication and flexible electronics has intensified the need for lightweight high-performance electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding films. However, it is a major challenge to prepare cellulose nanofiber (CNF)-based films integrating excellent EMI shielding and flame-retardant performance. In this study, the multifunctional EMI shielding CNF/MXene/carboxylated multi-walled carbon nanotube (c-MWCNTs)/thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU)/ammonium polyphosphate (APP)@zinc hydroxystannate (ZHS) (CMxCTA) composite films with a core-shell structure were successfully constructed by encapsulation of the as-prepared CNF/MXene/c-MWCNTs films with TPU composites containing a hybrid flame retardant (APP@ZHS). The obtained CMxCTA composite films not only exhibited high hydrophobicity with water contact angles above 95°, but also showed low heat and smoke release. It is noted that CMxCTA composite films exhibited high EMI shielding effectiveness (SE) exceeding 20 dB, meeting commercial requirements. Especially, CM4CTA displayed an outstanding EMI SE of 35.3 dB in the X-band and 50.3 dB in the K-band. The superior EMI shielding performance of CMxCTA composite films is attributed to the internal multiple attenuation mechanisms within the continuous porous conductive network. This study proposes a promising encapsulation strategy for fabricating hydrophobic, flame-retardant, and high-performance EMI shielding composite films for advanced electronic devices.

Flexible electrothermal materials with good processability, excellent electrothermal performance and reliable environmental stability are highly desired for many emerging applications. Inspired by the interlaced structure of fish nets, we designed and fabricated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) composites containing well-interconnected conductive carbon fillers, i.e., a branched structure superconductive carbon black (SCB) and rod-shaped vapor grown carbon fiber (VGCF). By optimizing the carbon fillers, a fishnet-like conductive network was constructed in PDMS matrix. Notably, such hybrid carbon fillers not only optimize rheological behavior during processing but also greatly improve the PDMS’s electrical and mechanical properties. Typically, the optimized 12 SCB/12 VGCF-P composite film with appropriate processing performance has low electrical resistivity (0.72 Ω·cm), high tensile strength (3.5MPa) and high elongation at break (247%). Such a composite shows excellent electrothermal performance, and its steady-state temperature can reach 101.1 °C within 15minutes under a safe voltage of 25V. It also has robust mechanical stability (stable electrothermal performance after 1000 bending/twisting cycles, slight loss at 20% tensile strain) and environmental tolerance (stable after 1 year outdoor exposure, 1 month acid/alkaline soaking and post-puncture testing). Clearly, this work provides a simple strategy to fabricate flexible composites with excellent electrothermal performance and environmental reliability, showing promise as advanced de-icing materials for large-scale applications.

High-performance polyurethane (PU) elastomers have demonstrated many important industrial applications in areas such as soft robotics, flexible sensors and electronic devices. However, it has been challenging to design strong and tough elastomers that are capable of fire-extinguishing and self-healing due to different governing mechanisms associated with these properties. Here we present a molecular engineering strategy to achieve strong, tough, fire-retardant, and healable PU elastomers by rationally designing a phosphorus/nitrogen (P/N)- and π-π interacting biphenyl-containing diol as hard segments with side groups. The formation of relatively strong interchain π-π stacking enables the elastomer to achieve superior mechanical and self-healing properties, while the combination of π-π stacking and P/N elements promotes exceptional fire retardancy. The resultant elastomer displays a record-high large break strain of ∼2500%, a large toughness (ca. 379 MJ/m3) and a tensile strength of 46 MPa, and a healing efficiency as high as 95% (tensile strength) and 99% (break strain). Also, the elastomer can self-extinguish with a high limiting oxygen index of 38.6%. We then demonstrate its application for high-sensitivity multi-mode tattoo sensors. This work opens new avenues for developing strong, flexible, tough elastomers with multiple integrated functionalities.

Developing high-performance polymeric materials using minimal amounts of single-component additives remains a significant challenge in materials science. In this work, we designed a core-shell structured hybrid flame retardant (MXene@BAPP) by employing 3-aminophenyl boronic acid as a molecular bridge to anchor MXene onto ammonium polyphosphate (APP) surface through hydrogen bonding interactions. The resulting MXene@BAPP was subsequently incorporated into polylactic acid (PLA) to create multifunctional PLA composites. The functionally modified PLA composite exhibited excellent flame-retardant properties. In addition, the crystallization performance, thermal stability, mechanical properties, and electromagnetic shielding performance of PLA were all improved. With only 3 wt% MXene@BAPP loading, the PLA composite achieved UL-94 V-0 rating while demonstrating 13 % and 27.6 % reductions in total heat release (THR) and peak heat release rate (pHRR), respectively. The study of mechanism showed that PLA/MXene@BAPP mainly exhibited a condensed phase flame-retardant mechanism dominated by synergistic carbonization effect, that was, the MXene-incorporated phosphorus/boron-rich char layer blocked the transfer of heat and combustibles, and inhibited combustion reactions. This work presents a facile yet effective interface engineering strategy for developing high-efficiency, and collaborative multifunctional flame retardants.

Epoxy resin (EP) is widely used in electronic and electrical applications, but its inherent flammability significantly restricts further use in these fields. Phosphorus-based flame retardants, such as 9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide (DOPO), provide efficient halogen-free flame retardancy and good compatibility with epoxy matrices, but their practical application is limited by high cost, reduced glass transition temperature, and increased smoke production. In this work, Australian red mud was upcycled to prepare high-purity Al2O3 fillers, which were subsequently surface-modified with a silane coupling agent and grafted with DOPO to fabricate multifunctional Al-Si-DOPO. Epoxy composites containing both 5 wt% Al-Si-DOPO and 5 wt% DOPO (EP/5Al-Si-DOPO/5DOPO) were successfully prepared, exhibiting significantly high glass transition temperature, enhanced flame retardancy, suppressed smoke generation, and well-maintained mechanical properties. The EP/5Al-Si-DOPO/5DOPO composite exhibited a limiting oxygen index (LOI) of 31.3% and achieved a UL-94 V0 rating, while its peak heat release rate (pHRR) and total hear release (THR) were reduced by 19.1% and 23.9%, respectively, compared with EP/DDM. Compared with the commercial DOPO price, the theoretically calculated price of Al-Si-DOPO decreased by 62.5%, indicative of superior cost-effectiveness. Thus, this strategy enables high-value utilization of industrial waste and offers a sustainable approach for designing environmentally friendly, cost-effective, high-performance epoxy composites.

Eutectogels are promising for flexible electronics but suffer from an inherent trade-off between strength and toughness, exhibiting poor crack and puncture resistance. Inspired by fish scales' hierarchical lamellar architecture with inclined, overlapping arrangements that enable multiscale energy dissipation, we report a biomimetic anisotropic eutectogel fabricated via shear/thermal-induced dual alignment of polydopamine-modified graphite nanoplatelets within a poly(vinyl alcohol) eutectogel. The resulting lamellar microstructure establishes multiscale dissipation mechanisms: macroscopic stress redistribution, interfacial sliding, and sacrificial hydrogen bond rupture. The eutectogel achieves unprecedented tensile strength (126.97 MPa), toughness (94.04 MJ m-3), puncture resistance (308.96 J m-2), and fatigue threshold (5080.94 J m-2), the first combined demonstration in eutectogels, with robust performance from -60 to 100 °C. Embedded nanoplatelets impart photothermal conversion, enabling multimodal sensing. This biomimetic strategy transcends mechanical limitations of soft ionic conductors, bridging laboratory curiosities and durable real-world devices.

Thermally conductive polymeric nanocomposite films have demonstrated great potential for battery thermal management (BTM). However, it has remained an enormous challenge to create low-cost, scalable, flexible, highly thermally conductive films capable of Joule heating performance due to a lack of rational material design strategies. Herein, an efficient approach is proposed to overcome this long-standing barrier via the strategy of welding carbon nanotubes on the graphene nanoplatelets' surface (GNPs@CNTs) and the bionic lay-by-lay (LBL) assembly technique. The horizontally aligned continuous GNPs layers function as primary in-plane thermally conductive paths, minimizing the thermal resistance. Meanwhile, the secondary CNTs network interconnects the GNPs into an integrated and densified 3D thermally conductive framework. As results, the as-prepared nacre-inspired waterborne polyurethane (WPU) nanocomposite film presents outstanding thermally conductive performances (high in-plane thermal conductivity ( lambda) of 25.2 W m-1 K-1 and out-of-plane lambda of 1.94 W m-1 K-1 ), ultralow cost (96.5 USD/kg), and excellent Joule heating performance (Joule-thermal response of 13.5 degrees C/s), which far outperforms previous thermal management counterparts. Also, the WPU nanocomposite film could achieve higher cooling and preheating efficiency for Li-ion battery compared to commercial counterpart products. This work provides a promising solution to create high-performance thermal management polymeric nanocomposite films, which hold great potential for BTM systems. (c) 2025 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The editorial office of Journal of Materials Science & ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )