The growing demand for sustainable and high-performance materials has positioned cellulose as a key biopolymer for next-generation functional systems. Beyond its traditional use, cellulose undergoes a qualitative transformation at the nanoscale, where increased surface area, interfacial dominance, and tunable chemistry enable functions unattainable in bulk form. This review provides a critical and integrative analysis of functionalization strategies governing the transition from structural modification to application-specific performance in cellulose and nanocellulose-based materials. A unified structure-property-function-process (SPFP) framework is introduced to systematically connect modification approaches with resulting structural features, physicochemical properties, and functional outcomes. Chemical, physical, and surface/interface modification strategies are comparatively evaluated with respect to their efficiency, scalability, and environmental trade-offs. Rather than cataloguing methods, the review emphasizes cross-domain synthesis and identifies key limitations, including high energy demand, reagent consumption, structural instability, and challenges in large-scale implementation. Particular attention is given to applications in biomedicine, environmental remediation, and energy technologies, where performance is governed by surface reactivity, accessibility, and hierarchical organization. The analysis highlights that no single modification strategy is universally optimal, and that effective material design requires balancing performance, sustainability, and process feasibility. By integrating conceptual frameworks, comparative analysis, and emerging design principles, this review provides a forward-looking perspective on the development of cellulose-based functional materials, supporting their transition from laboratory-scale demonstrations to application-ready technologies.
The microbiological safety of whole wheat flour remains a critical issue due to its susceptibility to contamination by spore-forming thermophilic bacteria. In this study, two thermophilic species, Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus mesentericus, were isolated from locally produced wheat grains and used as target microorganisms to evaluate the antibacterial potential of freshly pressed cabbage juices. Juices obtained from five cabbage varieties-red cabbage, white cabbage, napa (Chinese) cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower-were comparatively assessed using the broth dilution method to determine their minimum inhibitory and bactericidal effects (n = 3). The results revealed pronounced differences in antibacterial efficacy among the tested samples. White cabbage juice exhibited selective inhibitory activity against B. subtilis at a dilution of 1:4, whereas napa cabbage and broccoli juices demonstrated the highest antibacterial activity against both Bacillus species at a dilution of 1:3. Importantly, napa cabbage juice showed no inhibitory effect on Saccharomyces cerevisiae, indicating its compatibility with dough fermentation processes. Spectroscopic analysis of the bioactive fraction obtained from napa cabbage juice revealed characteristic absorption bands at 3422 cm-1 (O-H stretching), 2907-2840 cm-1 (aliphatic C-H stretching), 1740 cm-1 (ester carbonyl group), and 1641 cm-1 (C=C stretching). The predominance of lipophilic compounds, including fatty acid esters, terpenes, and sulfur-containing compounds (734 cm-1), suggests a molecular basis for the observed antibacterial activity against Bacillus spp. Overall, these findings identify napa cabbage as a promising source of selective natural antimicrobial agents capable of enhancing the microbiological safety of whole wheat flour-based bakery products without compromising yeast activity.
This study explores the process of shell fracture in a locally cultivated walnut variety in a reciprocating millstone setup that implements combined compression, shear, and torsion loading. The task addressed is to enable cracking across the entire shell surface while maintaining kernel integrity, which determines the yield of marketable produce. In the first stage, shell fracture forces were experimentally determined under localized loading from a natural cleft and a whole shell, followed by statistical processing using a two-parameter Weibull distribution. It was found that fracture from the cleft side occurs at lower loads than from the whole shell side, confirming the anisotropy of the shell's mechanical properties. In the second stage, the effect of roughness pitches of 10, 13, and 16 mm on the fracture force was studied. Experiments have shown that at a 10 mm pitch, fracture occurs with the lowest force; increasing the pitch to 13 and 16 mm increases the fracture force due to a decrease in local stress concentration. A comparison of the two experimental stages revealed that the geometry of the working surfaces determines the conditions for fracture without changing the general pattern: when loading from a natural cleft, lower forces are required. For a fracture probability of at least 0.95 for any nut orientation, a load of approximately 350 N is required. Additionally, the strength characteristics of the kernel were determined using an ST-2 structure analyzer; the average fracture force under direct loading is approximately 1200 grams (≈ 120 N). The results provide a mechanically sound basis for selecting the parameters of the working parts of a nut cracking machine and a safe range of operating loads
Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) has long stood as the prevailing standard in drug delivery, celebrated for its capacity to enhance solubility, extend circulation, and improve pharmacological performance. Nevertheless, the emergence of anti-PEG antibodies, accelerated clearance, and limited biodegradability increasingly undermine its role as a universal solution. In response, a new generation of polymers has been developed to address these shortcomings, offering the potential to sustain or surpass PEG’s benefits while mitigating immunogenicity, improving biocompatibility, and enabling finer control over therapeutic fate. This review examines current research to articulate a coherent perspective on the replacement of PEG, tracing how advances in polymer design are reshaping the foundations of targeted drug delivery. Taken together, these developments signal not only a corrective to the limitations of PEG but also a broader paradigm shift toward safer, more versatile, and clinically translatable systems that define the next frontier in precision therapeutics.
Currently, creating gluten-free bread comparable with traditional bread remains a major scientific and technological challenge. Gluten is a wheat flour protein complex, mainly gliadins (ω-, α-, and γ-gliadins) and glutenins consist of low molecular-weight and high molecular-weight subunits. The absence of a gluten framework negatively impacts the dough structure and texture. This comprehensive analysis is aimed at identifying the most effective and industrially relevant approaches for structuring gluten-free bread texture and practical implementation. Valuable attention is given to combinations of alternative protein flours (rice, sorghum, legumes, and pseudocereals) used to enrich gluten-free products with plant hydrocolloids, including pectin, β-glucan, gum arabic, gum tragacanth, guar gum, psyllium, and locust bean gum; and animal-derived hydrocolloids: gelatin and milk proteins (caseinate and whey concentrates). The following main review directions are discussed: hydrocolloids structuring and moisture retention, protein ingredients and protein-hydrocolloid interactions, fermentation and enzyme preparations, staling of gluten-free bread and methods of slowing it down, extrusion and microencapsulation technologies, and innovations and future directions. The problems of scalability and economic feasibility of the latest approaches; advances in food chemistry, biotechnology, process engineering, and consumer science; prospects for further research in the improvement of gluten-free bread value and meeting the growing consumer demand for healthy food products are considered.
