One of the reasons why people have not been able to understand Wang Fuzhi's "Zhengxin" is because of the tension between Zhi and Yi: on the one hand Wang Fuzhi spoke of the dominance of Zhi over Yi, while he spoke of the subordination of Zhi to Yi. In order to resolve this difficulty, we might introduce Wang Fuzhi's interpretation of the "eight types of consciousness". According to Wang Fuzhi, the seventh type of consciousness has absolute dominance over the first five types of consciousness, and the first five types of consciousness have a bottom-up erosion on the seventh and eighth type of consciousness. However, there is a division between Confucianism and Buddhism as to whether or not the Zhi should be preserved. But even though Wang Fuzhi spoke of "holding" in terms of "not holding", what he said was in fact distinct from the Buddhists and was still a continuation of the Confucian doctrine. In sum, for all his intellectual wanderings between the doctrines of Confucianism and Buddhism, Chuanshan's fundamental conviction never departed from the Confucian standpoint of qi-monism.
This article begins by taking Zhou Dunyi's formulation - "the sage stabilizes by means of centrality, uprightness, benevolence, and righteousness, and takes quiescence as the guiding principle" - as a point of contrast, and traces its conceptual lineage upward to the framework of "inner quiescence and outer reverence" (nei jing wai jing) found in the Four Chapters of the Guanzi. Within this conceptual horizon, the study further examines the affinities among the Four Chapters of the Guanzi, the Four Classics of the Yellow Emperor, and the Mencius with respect to their respective reflections on ding-jing (stabilization and quiescence). By adopting a dual-axial and rotational method of conceptual ascent, the article seeks to identify points of resonance between these texts and the Laozi, and thereby to argue, in a reverse-inferential manner, for the plausibility that the Laozi indeed embodies a coherent structure of ding-jing cultivation. Accordingly, in addition to explicating the mind-qi integrated modes of cultivation articulated in the Guanzi, such as "central quiescence and bodily rectification" (zhong jing xing zheng) and "inner quiescence and outer reverence," the article also examines parallel concepts in the Mencius that bear notable affinities with Laozi's ideas, including "reduction of desire", "nourishing qi," the ideal of the "great man", and the injunction that one "must have something constantly attended to". Through this cross-traditional reconstruction, it becomes evident that Mencius grounds inner quiescence in the cultivation of the mind through the reduction of desire, while securing stability in external affairs through the accumulation of righteousness and the nourishment of Qi. This model already manifests a dual-layered ding-jing structure of inner quiescence and outer reverence. Although this structure partially inherits Confucius's emphasis on reverent attentiveness, Mencius's articulation of achieving quiescence through the minimization of private desires subtly resonates with Laozi's conception of ding-jing cultivation. From this perspective, the influence of Laozi's thought on later Confucian and Daoist developments of ding-jing theory becomes discernible. Furthermore, although the Laozi may also be interpreted as containing implicit elements of ding-zhi (stabilizing and halting) practice grounded in centrality, uprightness, benevolence, and righteousness, Laozi appears to remain wary of modes of cultivation that operate explicitly within the correlated domains of bodily form and mind-Qi. Consequently, rather than actively elaborating a cultivation discourse centered on ritual or benevolence and righteousness, Laozi redirects the focal point of ding-jing practice toward the discipline of guarding the center (shou zhong). By according "centrality" (zhong) a foundational status that subsumes uprightness, benevolence, and righteousness, and by coordinating this practice with "quiescence through non-desire" (bu yu er jing), Laozi establishes a distinctive system of ding-jing cultivation characterized by an inverse or counter-directional dialectical structure.
Although the text of Laozi is brief, containing just over five thousand characters, the thinking of "True words seem paradoxical" (zheng yan ruo fan) it embodies offers significant inspiration for contemporary cultural diversity. Laozi attaches importance neither to secular values nor to competing with others. This mode of thinking is not pale and powerless; rather, grounded in a spirit of tolerance and openness toward the "Other," as well as the creativity brought about by changes in cognitive habits and ways of thinking, it develops a relationship that values the self while moving together with the Other toward their natural states, thereby manifesting the possibility of diversity. This cultural diversity is precisely the opportunity for today's cultural creativity and diversity to develop themselves. The pluralistic "Other" in Laozi does not lead the self away from the "Tao" (Way); rather, it is a journey of completing the self within the "Tao," integrating with the Other, and jointly tending toward the "Tao." Today's cultural creativity and cultural diversity indeed emphasize the "self-completion" of the individual. However, this "self-completion" in Laozi is a self-development premised on the "Tao" and a practice realized under the transformation of cognitive thinking characterized by "True words seem paradoxical."
There have been many discussions on Laozi's ethics, but there is a lack of questioning and discussion on what kind of ethics Laozi's ethics is and what kind of ethics Laozi's ethics is. The concept of ethical virtues created by Laozi is very unique. It is centered on concepts such as flexibility, gentleness, and humility, based on the flexible metaphysics of the Tao, and composed of a series of family like concepts and symbolic symbols such as humility, love, tolerance, justice, simplicity, desirelessness, contentment, and frugality. Ethics is a "flexible ethics" that is different from other forms of ethics. This ethics is based on the flexible virtues of the Tao, the limitations of human beings, openness and tolerance towards everything, respect for others, and self-restraint. In this ethics, flexibility and humility are the highest virtues of the Tao and the true virtues of humanity. For a world of authoritarianism, for human arrogance and self righteousness, this is a high-dose tranquilizer and sedative.
In Mencius, the Xing of X is comprehensively discussed. And, among them, what Mencius truly cares about is only the Xing of human beings rather than the Xing of things or the Xing of animals. When referring to the Xing of human beings, Mencius refers to the tendency, the genus, the origin, or the material foundation of human beings. Mencius may view these four explanations as elements that can be integrated into a single definition, complementing one another. Although Xun Zi disagrees with Mencius' theory that the Xing of human beings is good, he accepts Mencius' approach to exploring the Xing of human beings. As for the content of the Xing of human beings, Mencius thinks that it is the Four Sprouts, that is, a series of special moral emotions. In this respect, both Xun Zi and Zhu Xi hold different opinions about Mencius.
Using "sharp tools" to represent political authority and the cutting function of the tools as a metaphor for power-control is a common rhetorical device employed by Laozi and Taoist texts in order to illustrate the topics related to governance. However, in Laozi, advocates caution in deploying "sharp tools" explicitly rejecting cutting (The greatest cutting does not cut anything, (sic) (sic) (sic) (sic)); while in other Taoist texts, especially the Huang-Lao ((sic) (sic)) texts of the Warring States period and the texts of Zhu-Zi ((sic) (sic)) influenced by Huang-Lao, they clearly advocate "sharp tools" and cutting things. This sharp rhetorical turn is not only of linguistic significance but also reflects a fundamental change in the conceptualization of the Dao within early Chinese thought, which can be summarized as a reversal from the Dao of no-control advocated by Laozi to the Dao of control. This change can be detected in the macro-trend of ideological development based on AI modeling; but closely examining the cutting metaphor will provide researchers with an indispensable empirical perspective to understand the occurrence and reasons for this change.
The Confucian doctrine on qi-based theory of human nature had become influential for centuries since the Han dynasty but it underwent a fundamental change from the mid-Tang onwards, and Liang Su (sic)(sic) (753-793) was a critical figure at this historic juncture. This paper examines Liang's essay "Zhiguan Tongli"(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic) and it aims to highlight Liang's unique understanding of human nature among his contemporaries. Specifically, Liang proposed a universal theory of human nature, asserting that every human being inherently possesses the Real Nature of the Threefold Truth (Sandi Shixing (sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)). Through the practices of cessation and contemplation (zhiguan (sic)(sic)) and clarity and stillness (mingjing (sic)(sic)), individuals can restore their inherent nature and attain sagehood. This theory was markedly different from the traditional Confucian doctrine of human nature and indeed foreshadowed the xinxing (sic)(sic)-based theories of Li Ao and the later Neo-Confucians. This paper traces Liang's innovative ideas to Tiantai Buddhist sources while also identifying their roots in early Confucian, Daoist, and Neo-Daoist thought, ultimately illustrating how Liang synthesized these diverse traditions to redefine the Confucian path to sagehood.
Laozi, who reveres the Tao and values virtue, with a holistic perspective, aimed to address the decay of Zhou culture by attempting to correct its biases and shortcomings. He proposed a Taoist political approach of "giving birth without possessing, acting without relying, and leading without dominating," as well as the wisdom of "first, compassion; second, frugality; third, not daring to be the first in the world." Through his great benevolence and wisdom, he achieved the sage-like preservation of all beings through "non-action yet non-inaction," opened up a bright path for humanity based on the analogy of virtue (deducing human affairs from the laws of heaven), and ultimately reached a harmonious and happy era of peace and prosperity.
In the 1950s, some contemporary Neo-Confucians have advocated to rebuild Confucianism as a humanistic religion, which sparked Chun-yi Tang's continuous concern and exploration. This advocacy was facing the tension of ideas between Confucianism's humanism and the religion. Zong-san Mo appeals to the "perfect religion (teaching)" of transcending the religion. Chun-yi Tang advocated "new humanism" to encompass religion, which being able to more directly deal with the ideal and practical issues of the renewal. At the specific level of Confucianism's renewal, Chun-yi Tang is committed to explore ways to institutionalize Confucianism as an objective existence in modern society, including the plans of social undertakings, the search for the carriers, and illumination of Confucian faith in the situation of contemporary diverse beliefs. He also used his life experience and belief experience of numinous communication to present and embody the Confucian belief life in modern society, and to lay with the foundation for his empathy-oriented metaphysics. Compared the contemporary Neo-Confucians' philosophical reconstruction of Confucianism, their effort of the renewed Confucianism as religion did not stir up waves like the former, but as am ideal undercurrent and a practical direction, it contains a force that can act on the life world and contemporary society.
The problem of understanding between humans and fish involved in the "Debate of Haoliang", if only solved from the metaphysical, aesthetic, spiritual, and other transcendental aspects of "Taoist view" or through empathy, will obscure the connotation of "movement of the Tao". Specifically, it can only solve the possibility of mutual understanding or coexistence between humans and fish, but knowing "fish" is not equivalent to knowing the "joy" of the fish. From the perspective of the "wander" or transformation of the life subject, it can be seen that wander and joy are isomorphic. The life intention association unfolded in the current "wander" connects the joy of human beings, the joy of wander, and the joy of fish differently, forming a direct and identical relationship. This original "progressive tense" life connection is more real, closer than the dialectical relationship of "past tense", so that people can "personally" know the "joy" of fish. This solution that does not seek any "transcendence" can improve the richness of Zhuangzi's thinking and the characteristics of traditional philosophy.
Drawing upon the concepts of "revelation" and "tacit knowing" from religious studies, Christianity and Islam belong to the former category, while Buddhism-particularly Chan Buddhism-can be classified under the latter. Confucian thought possesses religious qualities, representing an inward transcendent form. How might this concept be utilised to position it? Re-examining the inward transcendence of Confucian thought, this paper contends that tacit knowing is not merely an 'unspoken teaching' or 'concealed interpretation,' but rather a subject open to discourse. Borrowing Professor Shen Ching-sung's concept of 'generosity' can enrich the meaning of tacit knowing and respond to the notion of revelation. Within the framework of introverted transcendence, Confucius's form of inward transcendence can be explored through the philosophical pair of 'revelation' and 'generosity,' allowing these concepts to mutually enrich each other's philosophical development and deepen our understanding of Confucius's inward transcendence.
"Knowing the Eternal" (zhi chang) and "Following the Eternal" (xi chang) are a set of highly philosophical expressions in the Laozi. Laozi consciously uses the term "chang" in a sense distinct from "heng". "Knowing the Eternal" not only signifies comprehending the "Eternal Way" (heng dao), but also implies acting and conducting oneself like the "Eternal Way"-that is, treating things in the manner of "Eternal Virtue" (heng de). "Following the Eternal" conveys this ethical dimension even more directly, pointing to a way of being in the world that involves an inward restraint of personal will, a behavioral pattern of self-awareness and subsequent adherence. Crucially, underlying the ethical principle of "softness, weakness, humility, and taking the lower position" (ru ruo qian xia) is Laozi's value pursuit of "emptiness and non-interference that does not harm the myriad things." For what is more fundamental than the values signified by Dao and De is the myriad things in themselves. Enabling the myriad things to preserve and return to their original state is not only the starting point but also the ultimate end of Laozi's ethical vision. It is precisely for this reason that "Dao and De" possess their noble status.
This paper takes Zhu Xi and Alan Turing as representative figures to compare the similarities and differences between the effect of "sudden enlightenment" (huoran guantong) formed by the "accumulation" style learning method emphasized in Zhu Xi's classics, and Turing's concept of the "child-machine," which advocates a learning framework wherein program functions can form a "general method for modifying itself." Both concepts inherently imply "learning," and both pursue learning progress and growth; however, the forms of expression employed are different: one belongs to the expression of "literary text," while the other belongs to the calculation of "algorithms" via "programs." Furthermore, Turing's concept of "program" differs from the "programming languages" of today. The author analyzes the thoughts on "learning" held by these two representative figures of different civilizations from three perspectives: "the accumulation effort in Zhu Xi's method of learning," "Turing's child-machine," and "a comparison between Turing's child-machine concept and Zhu Xi's accumulation effort." Particularly at a time when Generative AI has become an indispensable tool for learning, and learning is a daily activity for teachers and students, this paper argues that Confucian scholars should all the more understand how Turing, the father of AI, viewed the concept of learning, so as to better utilize technology and transmit culture in the future.
This paper explores the problem of the connection between Kant and Schelling's moral theology through the concept of freedom aiming to reveal both their convergences and divergences. The concept of freedom serves as the point of connection: both philosophers regard good and evil as originating from freedom. However, Kant conceives God as external to humanity, developing his theology through the notion of duty and interpreting the concepts of Christianity accordingly. Schelling, on the other hand, adopts Kant's concept of freedom but conceives God as identical with humanity, expressing a free theology: God manifests Himself through human freedom, even in evil, thereby overcoming the common pantheistic difficulty of the absence of freedom. Thus, while Kant can still speak of divine grace, it is conditioned upon virtue, and his theology consequently unfolds into a moral religion. Schelling, by contrast, cannot derive a moral religion from freedom, but instead develops a freedom-based theology.
This article takes Karl Barth's speculative theology as an exemplar of the reception of Immanuel Kant's philosophy in modern Protestant thought. "Speculative theology" is the description of a new paradigm in Barth interpretation. Its central theses are: (1) that the Denkform of Barth's mature theology is fundamentally guided by the speculative tradition handed down from Anselm of Canterbury to modern German idealism; (2) and that the Anselmian mode of speculation that Barth developed in the late 1920s and the early 1930s takes as its foundational principle the inconceivability of God in the strife against the egocentric mode of speculation that began with Descartes and culminated in Hegel. With the "speculative" model of Barth interpretation as a new post-Kantian paradigm directed specifically against the older post-Kantian paradigm initially advanced by Bruce McCormack, this article begins with a reexamination of Barth's phenomenalistic Kant interpretation and of Barth's view of Kant's role in the history of ideas. This intellectual-historical discussion provides the background for a comparative analysis between Barth and Kant, setting forth the thesis that Barth's Anselmian repudiation of Cartesian speculation is fundamentally informed by Kant's critiques of the ontological proof and of the cogito ergo sum. On this specific and all-important point, Barth came under Kant's indirect influence through thinkers like S & oslash;ren Kierkegaard. This Rezeptionsgeschichte gives us an exemplar of the extent of Kant's influence on modern Protestant thought.
The academic community has always interpreted Kant's teleology in a rational way, and based on this, only Kant's religious philosophy is understood as a rational religion. However, an analysis of the concepts of & Uuml;bereinstimung and Stimmung reveals that the subjective purposiveness of Kant's teleology portraying the aesthetic idea is irrational. The aesthetic idea God in his revelation religion has subjective purposiveness, and it coexists with the idea of reason God with moral purposiveness in Kant's religious philosophy. Rational path and irrational path coexist in Kant's religious philosophy due to the dual connotations of God.
In the Zhongni Yue from the Anhui University Bamboo Slips, the concept of "Shen Du" (vigilance in solitude) refers to the conscious and careful maintenance of moral awareness while engaging in social life. This interpretation finds support in the intertextual connections between Zhongni Yue and other excavated texts, including Confucius's Theory of Poetry, The Parents of the People and Cheng zhi Wenzhi. The articulation of the Shen Du is closely related to Confucius's creative transformation of the Book of Songs and the Book of Documents. In his commentary on the poem Yanyan, Confucius regarded Du (solitude) as a moral mind- the inherent spiritual force that transforms one's innate nature into actual emotions. On this basis, Shen Du refers to the careful maintenance of the authenticity and sovereignty of this moral mind, allowing it to serve as an intermediary mechanism connecting one's inner nature to external emotions. Simultaneously, Confucius transformed the "Shen De" (vigilance in virtue) found in the Book of Documents into the "Shen Du". This practice constitutes a discipline that "connects the higher and the lower" by mastering body and standing in awe of the Mandate of Heaven. In pre-Qin, the phrase "vigilance in one's solitude" should all be interpreted as "being cautious about one's mind". While the Great Learning and Rites in the formation of character primarily elaborate on the mind-nature dimension of Shen Du as the integration of inner nature and outward conduct, texts such as Five Elements, Doctrine of the Mean, and BuGou in Xunzi further incorporate both its ethical and transcendent dimensions.
In the preface to the second edition of Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason which is published in 1793, Kant explicitly proposed to make two attempts of thought in his systematic exposition of his philosophy of religion. The first attempt was an attempt to elucidate the relationship between revealed religion and rational religion, between the historical system of religion and the purely rational system of religion. The second attempt is an attempt to elucidate revelatory religion and historical faith in terms of purely moral philosophy, and to reduce it ultimately back to purely rational religion and purely moral religion. It is thus essentially an attempt at rationalization and moral reduction. As a matter of fact, in this book, Kant also completed the systematic interpretation and theoretical construction of moral religion in such a way of reductive interpretation, and in this way emphasized that his philosophy of religion was essentially a moral religion based on practical reason. In contrast, Schleiermacher, based on his criticism of the misunderstanding of religion by Enlightenment reason, began to use the concepts of "feeling" (Gef & uuml;hl) and "intuition" (Anschauung) in On Religion published in 1799, to reconstruct the essential nature of religion. In The Chrisitan Faith (Glaubenslehre) published in1821, Schleiermacher uses a set of theories of religious self-consciousness in an attempt to reconstruct the nature of the Christian faith and its doctrinal system.
Exploring contemporary spirituality, healing and practice, contemporary religious scholars have discovered that "spiritual but not religious" (SBNR) has become a trend of contemporary people's inner pursuit. People no longer completely belong to traditional religions, seek salvation under traditional religious systems, and choose "spirituality" as a path for self-growth and healing. "Spirituality" combines contemporary daily life, and achieves self-growth, self-improvement, self-transcendence, and the process of perfection in both internality and transcendence, including sacred realization, transcendental experience, body, mind and soul healing, etc. How to define spirituality has become a new topic in religious studies. This article attempts to define spirituality from the research of contemporary religious scholars, sociologists, and psychologists, and proposes that the field of spirituality has become a new perspective for contemporary religious studies. We must pay attention to the study of spirituality and recognize how to explore the spiritual life of contemporary people from a spiritual perspective.
Koyr & eacute;'s investigation of the history of science finds its foundation in his seemingly irrelevant study of the philosophy of religion in his early career. Koyr & eacute; obtained his insight into the unity of the infinite God and infinite universe by examining the idea of God in the works of St. Anselm and Descartes. The Platonic emphasis on the ontology of number also made him realize the hidden metaphysical framework of thinking in the modern cosmology: the notion of infinity bridges metaphysics and science. It was his reflection on the idea of infinite God that led to the achievements of his later research, as his promotion of the unity of human thinking was already perfectly exemplified in his early works on the philosophy of religion.
