An archaic blast furnace and a forge with a water-powered trip-hammer were excavated at the site of Valle delle Forme. The archaeology of this site was discussed in a first paper published in Historical Metallurgy 53(1) (Cucini et al. 2019). The forge of Valle delle Forme is the first site of this kind in the Italian Alps to be studied from an archaeological and archaeometallurgical standpoint. The focus of this paper is the study of the metallurgical waste from the site and the paper’s aim is to provide a deeper understanding of the Bergamasque method for the making of cast iron and the decarburisation process. These finds were the subject of a PhD thesis (discussed in the academic year 2015–2016) by Dr. Irene Uda at Pavia University and were studied at the CEA (Saclay, France).
This article presents a summary of XRF/PIXE analyses of the elemental chemical composition of three clock mechanisms and four calculating machines from the 17th century. These objects are both luxurious and functional, and therefore subject to two constraints: aesthetic (appearance and colour of the brass) and mechanical (resistance to stress and friction). The analyses, which focused on the main constitutive elements of brass (Cu, Zn, Sn, Pb, Ni), enabled to identify several types of brass of different qualities that respond fairly well to the mechanical and wear constraints to which the mechanisms are subjected. The choice of materials seems to have been guided mainly by these constraints and by economic considerations. In addition, the study highlights the existence of a Parisian foundry that was probably the source of all the brasses studied, and shows that the use of high-zinc brass (>33% Zn) was already common for this type of object by the mid-seventeenth century.
Corrigendum to: Thilo Rehren, Sam Nixon, Bokbot, Y., Brunella Santarelli, Biyang Wang, & Desai, M. (2026). Multiple metallurgies in Medieval Tamdult, a mining, smelting and caravan town in southern Morocco. Historical Metallurgy, 56(1), 3-19. https://doi.org/10.54841/hm.686 The corrigendum is also included on the last page of the article.
The historic town of Masouleh in Gilan Province, northern Iran, represents a distinctive cultural landscape shaped by the interaction between human settlement and rich natural resources, especially iron ore. This study investigates the geological, archaeological, and historical evidence for iron mining and metallurgy in the Masouleh region and evaluates their role in the town’s socioeconomic development. New fieldwork and laboratory analyses have identified over thirty metallurgical sites within the Masouleh valley and its highland surroundings, yielding slag, tuyères, and fragments of furnace walls that attest to a long tradition of iron smelting. XRF analyses of slag and ores indicate the use of high-grade hematite and magnetite ores, reduced in both bloomery and charcoal-fueled blast furnaces. Comparison with ethnographic and historical records from Qarādāgh and Mazandaran provides insights into the operation of multi-chamber smelting installations at sites such as Kohne Masouleh and Siyapesia. From the Safavid to Qajar periods (16th to early 20th centuries CE), iron extraction, smelting, and blacksmithing underpinned the economy of Masouleh, supplying iron products to regional markets and the royal arsenal. These findings demonstrate that iron metallurgy was central to the technological and economic identity of Masouleh and highlight the need for further interdisciplinary studies combining geology, archaeo- metallurgy, and landscape archaeology to reconstruct the region’s industrial past.
The early Islamic settlement of Tamdult in southern Morocco is at the centre of an archaeological mining-metallurgical landscape with strong evidence for the production and working of lead, silver, copper and brass. Here, we provide an overview of the various metallurgies identified, and discuss their likely common origin from a sulfidic complex lead-zinc-copper ore mineralisation, leading to two distinct primary products: silver pellets and brass ingots. The presence of ancient mining traces, multiple locales of copper and lead smelting, fragments of litharge, numerous coin moulds with silver traces, and various types of ore, slag, crucibles and moulds linked to brass making, constitutes the most comprehensive inter-connected set of chaînes opératoires for copper, brass, lead and silver production in northwestern Africa. The initial results presented here allow key aspects of the raw material procurement and processing to be reconstructed, and to identify remaining gaps in our understanding and documentation of early medieval metal production on the western fringes of the Sahara.
In her paper, Dr Bulstrode’s disclaims the traditional view that the rolling of iron was discovered by Henry Cort. Rather she attributes this to the enslaved working in a Jamaican foundry based on their experiences of crushing sugar cane. Whilst there is no evidence of rolling here, there are documentary exchanges between the Jamaican and British Governments which show evidence for the introduction of the making of malleable iron based on English practices developing at much the same time as the establishment of the Jamaican foundry at Reeders Pen.As a result of a feared invasion in the 1780s the foundry was demolished and its reestablishment ignored. It is the resulting correspondence for recompense from the British Government that forms the bulk of discussion. When compared with the developing iron technology at the time there is common ground for assuming that this was exported to Jamaica by 1783.
Zimbabwe, a land with abundant iron-ores, has been populated since the 6th century AD mostly by iron-using, Shona-speaking agriculturalists. The extractive iron metallurgy they employed in the late 1800s was the bellows-powered, forced-draught furnace – in contrast to general practice north of the Zambezi. The Njanja clan of east-central Zimbabwe – the best known local exponents of this technology – constructed batteries of small furnaces each with two, rear, tuyère holes. Prior to the 15th century, however, large natural-draught furnaces with multiple tuyère holes were the dominant smelting apparatus. During the Zimbabwe Culture period in the 14th-15th centuries, non-agricultural production (mainly gold and ivory, plus iron and copper) came under the control of political élites overseeing a redistributive economic system with exports to the east African coast and beyond. The advent of the smaller forced-draught furnace may be related to the eventual decline of the Zimbabwe Culture and its economy.
Corrigendum to: Comment to Dr Jenny Bulstrode’s paper ‘Black metallurgists and the making of the industrial revolution’, History and Technology (2023). A review of the technology used during the operation of Reeders Pen at Morant Bay Jamaica 1772 to 1783., published in Historical Metallurgy 55(2), pp. 81–85. doi: 10.54841/hm.675 The corrigendum is also included on the last page of the comment.
This paper investigates the microstructural features of Indian gold settings know as kundan using xenon plasma focused ion beam (pFIB), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX). Testing sought to determine the purity of the gold foils in kundan settings and if they form diffusion bonds, by cold-working. Three, 19th century samples of Indian kundan with reliable provenance were analysed. The samples were from the hilts of two Indian daggers given as diplomatic gifts to Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, during his tour of the Indian subcontinent in 1875-6. It was confirmed that diffusion bonding does occur in the cold-worked gold during the kundan process. Work hardening and mechanical condensing also contribute to the mechanical integrity of kundan settings. The settings were found to comprise of near pure gold foils of ~10 µm thickness.
Between 1869 and 2017, the Åker assemblage was uncovered as a stray and excavated find on the Åker farm located in southeastern Norway. The finds are currently located in the University Museum of Cultural History in Oslo and include belt buckles, strap mounts and fragments of weaponry (including shield mounts and a pommel). The assemblage has been dated to the second half of the 6th century or ca 600 AD. Ingunn M. Røstad has published a comprehensive presentation comprising both recent and early research on the Åker assemblage, highlighting the full spectrum of items, their decorative elements, and intended use. The current article presents a technical analysis of a selection of fourteen objects, which includes weaponry, belt buckles, and strap mounts. The aim of this paper is to explore the distinctiveness of the assemblage through analyses of the materials and techniques employed.
The excavation of the copper cementation workshop at Le Clos-Paul site in Charleville-Mézières, Ardennes, France revealed forty-three fragments of coin moulds. Dating from to the end of the 3rd century AD, they are the only evidence of an opportunistic counterfeit production not directly linked to the metallurgical activity of the site. After studying the copied coins, metrological and structural observations allowed us to resume the study of the modus operandi of this counterfeiting process, continuing the work of Hans Drescher.
Copper was central to the Late Roman Cypriot economy, represented by large-scale production sites. This study examines often-overlooked small-scale mining by focusing on Pyrga in the Pouzis Valley, Southeast Cyprus. Surveys by the Hala Sultan Tekke Hinterland Survey Project (2021–ongoing) revealed dispersed slag heaps near potential church remains. Metal slag analysis reveals a consistent manganese-rich composition and low residual copper, suggesting controlled and efficient smelting. Viewed alongside the Codex Theodosianus and Codex Justinianus, regulating mining, taxation and landownership, and the proximity of churches to production sites, this raises the possibility that Pyrga’s production was part of a centrally organised network. This research examines how ecclesiastical institutions may have steered local economy, administration and taxation, and technological practices. This dual exploration of administration and technology deepens our understanding of the relationship between ecclesiastical power and the copper economy of Late Roman Cyprus.
The limited woodland resources that have characterised the Northern Isles of Scotland for millennia pose serious questions when attempting to understand how prehistoric communities fuelled their iron smelting endeavours. The archaeological evidence from the Northern Isles and ethnographic studies from the 19–20th centuries tentatively suggests that peat could have been used for such iron smelting activities. This research considers whether peat charcoal is a viable iron smelting fuel via an experimental campaign. Thermal data produced by this campaign, as well as a metallographic and chemical study of the products from the smelts suggest that charcoaled peat may be capable of producing an iron bloom. Important discussions concerning technical, economic, and ideological aspects of Iron Age metalworking can arise from a recognition of peat in the iron smelting process.
This paper investigates the microstructural features of Indian gold settings know as kundan using xenon plasma focused ion beam (pFIB), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX). Testing sought to determine the purity of the gold foils in kundan settings and if they form diffusion bonds, by cold-working. Three, 19th century samples of Indian kundan with reliable provenance were analysed. The samples were from the hilts of two Indian daggers given as diplomatic gifts to Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, during his tour of the Indian subcontinent in 1875-6. It was confirmed that diffusion bonding does occur in the cold-worked gold during the kundan process. Work hardening and mechanical condensing also contribute to the mechanical integrity of kundan settings. The settings were found to comprise of near pure gold foils of ~10 µm thickness.
This paper describes a metalworking yard from the 3rd and early 4th century AD, which was excavated in 1993 in the terp settlement known as Wijnaldum-Tjitsma (NL). This site is situated in a dynamic salt-marsh landscape. We describe the various features that belong to the workshop and provide a micromorphological description of one of its components: a smithy floor. The reconstructed house and adjacent metalworking yard provide data for the production of several, different metals, besides iron. The Wadden Sea region itself is devoid of metal ores though rich in cattle that probably provided surplus. The metals recovered in Wijnaldum largely come from scraps probably obtained through exchange with Germanic communities to the South and East and also with the Roman Empire. Based on the examination of the metallurgical and other traces in the yard, a contextual interpretation is given of the metalworking activities and the degree of specialisation achieved. This article includes Supplementary Information.
Excavations produced evidence for a Middle Iron Age iron smelting centre, probably of the 2nd century BC, with four iron smelting furnaces, three of a large ‘dome’ morphology and one smaller, more conventional, slagpit-type. A total of over 800 kg of slag was recovered from the site, indicating an operation of some significance. Details of furnace construction and large suites of archaeometallurgical residues were recovered for two successive examples of the ‘dome’ furnaces. ‘Dome’ furnaces are rare and poorly known from the British Iron Age, although common in parts of Europe. New evidence shows that they may have been operated on a continuum with smaller furnace types. Precise interpretation was hampered by ambiguities within the compositional modelling, but these furnaces both illustrate the sophistication of Iron Age iron smelting in Britain and demonstrate the need for its more nuanced and evidence-driven interpretation.
This paper examines the available evidence relating to the disputed origin of Henry Cort’s iron-rolling process. The principal primary sources, reproduced in the Appendix, do not support the contention that Cort acquired the process from enslaved black metalworkers at John Reeder’s foundry in Jamaica; nor that the foundry was dismantled and shipped to Portsmouth for Cort’s benefit. The sources instead suggest that ordinary and widespread ironmaking processes were in use at Reeder’s foundry; that no innovation occurred there; that the chain of events by which Cort is supposed to have heard of the foundry’s activities certainly did not occur; that Reeder’s foundry was destroyed because of the threat of a Franco-Spanish invasion force; and that no part of the foundry was removed from the immediate vicinity of the island, let alone taken to Portsmouth.
Saws for woodwork are a very ancient tool form, and the materials of their blades have been very little studied. This paper shows that although melted steels were known in London from about 1721, the introduction of Huntsman’s crucible cast steel in Sheffield in the mid 18th century was a major factor in effecting a rapid and permanent change of saw-blade material from iron to steel. Using original business documents it is shown that Sheffield saw makers were closely tied to the new steel industry, the growth of which depended on the increasing number of firms. Many of them supervised the making of their own steel, thus enabling quality control. It seems likely that the early combination of these industries was a powerful factor in establishing Sheffield’s long dominance of both.
This paper presents key results from experimental work on traditional bronze casting, focusing on early to high medieval bells, roughly between the 8th and 12th century AD. It demonstrates that combining craft, historical sources, and modern science can effectively revive lost technologies. The reconstruction is based on Theophilus Presbyter’s Schedula Diversarum Artium, dated to the early 12th century, whose precise instructions were critical, though several field-scale experiments were required to refine the process.These experiments are part of broader research into medieval large-scale casting methods in central Europe. The paper argues that more than experimental archaeology or traditional craft is needed to understand and recreate lost technologies. Researchers must invest significant time mastering materials, tools, and techniques to grasp craft processes fully. Brief experimental engagements fail to capture the depth of these traditions. This approach bridges archaeology and hands-on practice, challenging conventions in both traditional craft and mainstream academia.
High-tin bronzes were already used for mirrors in antiquity. These alloys were also employed in reflecting telescopes before the availability of silvered glass mirrors of sufficient optical quality. Bronze mirrors from six 18th-century telescopes in the collections of the Musée d’histoire des sciences in Geneva, four of them signed by well-known London instrument makers, were analysed for this study. Their composition is discussed in the context of historic recipes and reference results from other contemporary telescopes.
