Fiber products, including cordage and textiles, were essential to daily life and played a crucial role in early urbanization. However, their poor preservation in archaeological contexts has limited our full-fledged understanding of the fibrous plants exploited and the technologies employed. This study applies usewear analysis and fiber residue analysis, including transmitted polarized light microscopy and the modified Herzog test, to stone tools, spindle whorls, human remains and textile fragments from Shimao. The results reveal, for the first time, the production and consumption of plant bast fibers in this early city on the north Loess Plateau. Our analysis identifies bast fiber remains possibly coming from hemp (Cannabis sativa), Chinese jute (Abutilon theophrasti), flax (Linum spp.), and/or ramie (Boehmeria nivea), illuminating fiber processing techniques of the time. In addition, stone tools analyzed from Hanjiagedan, a residential area within Shimao, indicate multiple stages of bast fiber production, including harvesting, pounding, probably after retting, scraping, spinning and weaving, demonstrating cordage and textile specialization. Although local plant resources appear to have been the primary source of fibers, some fiber products may have come from outside the Shimao region. Evidence from Huangchengtai and Hanjiagedan, including bone needles and spindle whorls, further suggests that Shimao was a major center of socio-economic activities on the Loess Plateau during the process of urbanization.

Abstract The 1921 excavation at Yangshao, Henan Province, is generally regarded as the starting point of modern Chinese archaeology. Since then, among the humanities and social sciences, archaeology has become one of the fastest-growing disciplines in China. According to official statistics, as of September 2022, China had 91 archaeological units with the remit to excavate, including seven national-level archaeological institutions, 32 provincial-level archaeological institutions, 20 universities, and 52 other institutions such as museums, cultural institutions, and municipal archaeological institutions. This chapter discusses the development of modern Chinese archaeology across four periods: the initial years (1921–1949), the period of establishing the discipline (1949–1976), the period of growth (1976–2000), and the current boom (since 2000). It gives an overview of the main institutions, management models, theoretical foundations, training principles, and regulations, and the context in which they were developed. Earlier in the history of the discipline, most projects were rescue excavations, but by now planned projects and preventative work are common. Excavations at large sites such as Liangzhu, Shimao, Yinxu, and Chang’an (modern-day Xi’an) aiming to establish and refine chronological frameworks and understand developments over time and space have received much attention and funding. The aim has been to develop an archaeological research and heritage management system with Chinese characteristics that fits local particularities.

To trace the history of human-cat interactions and the arrival of domestic cats (Felis catus) in East Asia, we analyzed 22 small felid bones excavated from 14 archaeological sites across China spanning 5,000 years. Genomic and radiocarbon evidence revealed that commensal leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis) appeared in anthropogenic environments at least 5,400 years ago and persisted until 150 CE. After a gap of several centuries, the earliest known domestic cat in China (c. 730 CE), reconstructed as a fully or partially white cat, was identified in Shaanxi during the Tang Dynasty. Genomic analysis combining 130 modern and ancient Eurasian cat specimens suggested an origin of Chinese domestic cats from the Levant and a likely merchant-mediated dispersal via the Silk Road. Commensal leopard cats and domestic cats once independently inhabited ancient human settlements in China but followed divergent sociocultural paths with only domestic cats becoming fully domesticated and globally introduced.

The earliest cats in human settlements in China were not domestic cats (Felis catus), but native leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis). To trace when and how domestic cats arrived in East Asia, we analyzed 22 feline bones from 14 sites across China spanning 5,000 years. Nuclear and mitochondrial genomes revealed that leopard cats began occupying anthropogenic scenes around 5,400 years ago and last appeared in 150 CE. Following several centuries' gap of archeological feline remains, the first known domestic cat (706 to 883 CE) in China was identified in Shaanxi during the Tang Dynasty. Genomic analysis suggested a white or partially white coat and a link to a contemporaneous domestic cat from Kazakhstan, indicating a likely dispersal route via the Silk Road. The two felids once independently occupied ancient anthropogenic environments in China but followed divergent paths and reached different destinations in human-animal interactions. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

The Shimao site, a large settlement that developed in the Late Longshan period (2300 − 1800 BCE), represents the northernmost recovery of rice (Oryza sativa L.) grains dating from the Late Longshan to Erlitou periods in northwest China. The presence of these rice grains has sparked debate on whether they were locally cultivated or acquired through trade. This study conducted phytolith analysis and Growing Degree Days (GDD) modeling on cultural deposits from the Huangchengtai location at the Shimao site, covering both the Shimao and Zhukaigou cultural periods. Phytolith analysis results showed a high frequency and density of rice stem and leaf phytoliths which, alongside their presence across multiple phases of occupation, supporting the possibility of local small-scale cultivation. The GDD model analysis indicates that even with a 2 °C temperature drop, the area around the Shimao site could still support the growth of japonica rice. Additionally, previous studies on charcoal and soils suggest that the climate in northern Shaanxi between 2500 and 1500 BCE was warmer and more humid than today, providing favorable conditions for rice cultivation. Evidence of social stratification, high-status artifacts, and feasting-related remains at Shimao collectively indicates that rice cultivation may have been driven by the need to display hierarchy and support ceremonial feasting. Moreover, the robust development of the Shimao site significantly enhanced its ability to procure rice resources and organize rice cultivation. This paper provides key evidence of the northernmost rice cultivation in northwest China from 2000 to 1600 BCE and offers basic information for understanding the routes and motivations behind the northward spread of rice.

The relationship between management of agricultural / agropastoral resources and the emergence of urbanism in China remains poorly understood. We firstly integrate and contrast new and existing stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data (n = 650) from human, livestock and crop remains at Shimao and Erlitou, two major urban sites in northern China dating from the late Neolithic to early Bronze Age. We identify and discuss temporal and regional differences in subsistence management at both early urbanized regions alongside a narrative of crop-regime shifts and increasing site complexity. We illustrate how two patterns of subsistence management, strongly influenced by agro-pastoral interactions from Eurasian steppe circa. 4500 to 3700/3500 cal. yr BP resulted in dynamic trajectories of intensive and/or extensive herd and crop management and their respective long-term implications.

The discovery of Shimao city (around 2300-1800 BCE1), a premier state-level Neolithic fortified settlement in Shaanxi, China2, played an important role in helping us understand the emergence of socially stratified urban societies. However, key questions remain regarding how ancestry and kinship shaped the hierarchy of this class-based society characterized by human sacrifice. The origin of the founding populations of Shimao and other Loess Plateau settlements, and their interactions within the broader ancestral landscape, have yet to be determined. Here we present, by sequencing 144 ancient genomes from Shimao city and its satellites, pedigrees among tomb owners spanning up to four generations. These findings reveal a predominantly patrilineal descent structure across Shimao communities, and possibly sex-specific sacrificial rituals. We also characterize the population history, revealing that Shimao culture-related populations originated mostly from a Yangshao culture-related population present at least 1,000 years earlier, and the lasting inflow of Yumin-related populations from Inner Mongolia did not interrupt regional genetic continuity. Broader genetic influence from southern mainland ancestry over Shimao culture-related populations supports evidence of rice farming expanding further north than previously expected. Together, these results uncover fine details of the regional peopling and social structure of early state establishment.

The emergence of Shimao, a proto-urban center at the contact zone between agropastoral communities of the Loess Plateau and herders/hunter-gatherers of Monogolian Plateau, offers critical insights into the economic activities during the transition to the Bronze Age in continental East Asia. Unprecedented in scale in prehistoric China, the bone needle workshop at the central mound was a prelude to the specialized, industrial-scale bone production workshops seen in the Bronze Age cities of Zhengzhou, Anyang, and Zhouyuan during the second and early first millennium BCE. The bone needle production at Huangchengtai probably supplied a sophisticated craft industry for the production of garments using animal hides and textiles.

Recent studies have suggested that dogs were domesticated during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) in Siberia, which contrasts with previous proposed domestication centers (e.g. Europe, the Middle East, and East Asia). Ancient DNA provides a powerful resource for the study of mammalian evolution and has been widely used to understand the genetic history of domestic animals. To understand the maternal genetic history of East Asian dogs, we have made a complete mitogenome dataset of 120 East Asian canids from 38 archaeological sites, including 102 newly sequenced from 12.9 to 1 ka BP (1,000 years before present). The majority (112/119, 94.12%) belonged to haplogroup A, and half of these (55/112, 49.11%) belonged to sub-haplogroup A1b. Most existing mitochondrial haplogroups were present in ancient East Asian dogs. However, mitochondrial lineages in ancient northern dogs (northeastern Eurasia and northern East Asia) were deeper and older than those in southern East Asian dogs. Results suggests that East Asian dogs originated from northeastern Eurasian populations after the LGM, dispersing in two possible directions after domestication. Western Eurasian (Europe and the Middle East) dog maternal ancestries genetically influenced East Asian dogs from approximately 4 ka BP, dramatically increasing after 3 ka BP, and afterwards largely replaced most primary maternal lineages in northern East Asia. Additionally, at least three major mitogenome sub-haplogroups of haplogroup A (A1a, A1b, and A3) reveal at least two major dispersal waves onto the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in ancient times, indicating eastern (A1b and A3) and western (A1a) Eurasian origins.

Renewed excavations at Shimao, the largest stone walled urban site in northern China dating to around 4200-3700 BP, have focused on Shimao's unusual architecture and material culture, but there remains much to be known about the subsistence system and agricultural strategies the inhabitants employed around this site. In this paper we provide new archaeobotanical and isotopic evidence for the agricultural systems and strategies that supported Shimao and nearby sites, from 5000 to 3000 BP. Our data show that the system gradually shifted from one based on common millet as the main staple-requiring a high level of labour-input-to a system dependent on extensive cultivation of foxtail millet, which is better suited to dryland cultivation in colder environments. We argue that this shift in cultivation coincided with regional climate change, and helped sustain early Bronze Age state societies, which fuelled the rapid emergence of social complexity in the semi-arid and arid area of the northern Loess Plateau from 4200 to 3000 BP.

The emergence of Shimao, a proto-urban center at the contact zone between agropastoral communities of the Loess Plateau and herders/hunter-gatherers of Northern Eurasia, offers critical insights into the economic activities during the transition to the Bronze Age in continental East Asia. Unprecedented in scale in prehistoric China, the bone needle workshop at the central mound Huangchengtai was a prelude to the specialized, industrial-scale bone production workshops seen in the Bronze Age cities of Zhengzhou, Anyang, and Zhouyuan during the second and early first millennium BC. Based on the analysis of its production, we argue for Shimao's role as an economic and ritual center that involved both permanent residents and a seasonal gathering of populations from diverse economic and cultural backgrounds, where exchange activities took place alongside religious pilgrimage activities. The bone needle production at Huangchengtai probably supplied a sophisticated textile and tannery industry revolving around the production of garments and ritual costumes using animal hides and skin.

Shimao is among the largest settlements dating back to the late Longshan to early Bronze Age in Northern China. The Huangchengtai locality is often identified as the palace center of Shimao. The excavation of a large number of ceramic artifacts from this site presents an excellent opportunity to study Shimao's pottery technology. To understand the use of the potter's wheel and the traces left on ceramics, we conducted a comprehensive investigation of ceramics from the Huangchengtai locality. This investigation involved observing technological traces, X-ray photography, and microstructural analysis. The results revealed that the majority of the ceramic pots were made using the techniques of coiling and molding. However, a small portion of the pottery displayed techniques of throwing and turning. Interestingly, neither Shimao nor its neighbors had access to highly developed fast-wheel technology during that period. Moreover, many of the pots made on the potter's wheel in Shimao show a connection to pots found in the Longshan culture in the Central Plains. Therefore, it is likely that Shimao's fast-wheel technology originated from the Central Plains.

Ceramic raptors were unearthed at the site of Shimao (2300-1800 BCE), a 425-ha walled settlement on the Loess Plateau in northern Shaanxi, China. Bird-shaped figures of similar size and age are rare in prehistoric East Asia. For the first time, the present paper conducted a compositional study on the Shimao ceramic raptors using a noninvasive handheld X-ray fluorescence (hhXRF) analyzer. The hhXRF data were compared with those of Shimao utilitarian vessels and local clays to investigate the production of these artifacts. Multivariate statistical analyses of the compositional data suggest that the ceramic raptors are primarily similar to utilitarian pottery in chemical composition but the source(s) of the clay for making them do not match those of the sampled soils. Three subgroups of the ceramic raptors are recognizable by their body color and characteristics of the exterior surface, and they demonstrate compositional variability possibly suggesting different sources of the clay. In addition, calcium-rich whitish substances are inferred as residues of a white paint intentionally applied during the production or use of ceramic raptors. Based on a discussion of archaeometric and archaeological evidence, we propose that the Shimao ceramic raptors were manufactured by multiple production units and meant to mimic a specific, culturally significant bird species (eagles). We also speculate that they were displayed during special events at restricted locales and were intentionally (even ritually) discarded after use. It is possible that the ceramic raptors constituted a part of the political landscape shaped by the Shimao elites, who possessed authority and power on a regional scale.

This study presents the results of a preliminary investigation on micro-botanical remains preserved on Tolai hare (Lepus tolai) teeth recovered from Yangjiesha, a site located on the north of the Loess Plateau in China, dated circa. 4900B.P. The microscopic analysis reveal that starch grains from Triticeae, millets and their wild relatives as well as wood tissue fragments were identified in dental residues This implies that, in the context of the intensive development of millet farming at about 5000B.P., hares at Yangjiesha may have been active inside or near the agricultural settlement areas and formed long-term interactions with humans against the new agricultural ecology of the north Loess Plateau.

本文对石峁遗址皇城台东护墙北段出土陶器进行了成分和岩相分析.结果显示,陶器原料主要为低铝易熔黏土,钙含量较低者可能使用古土壤制成;少量钙含量较高者则使用第三纪红黏土.个别样品黏土中粉砂含量很低,可能与河流冲积土或原料反复淘洗有关.罐和豆多为泥质陶,鬲和盆则多夹砂,羼合料类型包括砂质、沉积岩、铁镁质岩屑和熟料等.本次分析样品出土地点相对集中,但其羼合料和粘土种类均较为多样,显示其可能来源于多个制陶作坊.

Large eagle-shaped figures were unearthed at the Shimao site (2300–1800 BCE), an impressive walled-town built on the Loess Plateau in northern Shaanxi of China. Bird-shaped figures of comparable size and date have not been reported elsewhere in East Asia. The present paper, for the first time, carried out a compositional study of the figures and compared the data with those of contemporaneous utilitarian vessels and local clays, to understand the production of eagle-shaped figures. Multivariate statistical analyses of the compositional data suggest that the figures were largely similar to utilitarian pottery in chemical composition but the source(s) of clay for making them was not identified in the sampled soils. Three subgroups of figures are recognizable by their body color and characteristics of exterior surface and they demonstrate considerable compositional differences, possibly implying different sources of clay. Furthermore, calcium-rich whitish substances were supposedly residues of white paint intentionally applied in production or use of the figures. We conclude that the eagle-shaped figures were likely manufactured by different production units, made to be species-specific, displayed in special events at particular locales, and intentionally discarded after use. They may become part of the political landscape shaped on by the Shimao elites.

本文通过对石峁遗址皇城台出土的16件陶器进行分析,在器物内壁残留物中发现了酒类遗存.酿酒发酵方法可能包括利用谷物发芽和制曲两种技术.主要原料成分包括黍、小麦族、大米、百合、栝楼根、姜科植物、芡实和野豌豆.陶瓮可能用于酿酒,鬶、盉为盛酒器和温酒器,杯用于饮酒.这一结果首次揭示了新石器时代晚期黄土高原酒的生产和消费情况,也显示了在早期城市化进程中,宴饮在社会分化和区域互动等方面扮演的重要角色.

石峁遗址是新石器时代晚期至夏时代早期榆林地区农牧交错带中的超大型中心聚落,产生于聚落林立、社会等级分化明显的社会复杂化进程中.文章通过鉴定与分析石峁遗址核心区皇城台地点东护墙北段上部、门址及大台基等区域浮选所获样品,结合已公布的外城东门、后阳湾等地点的植物遗存鉴定数据,对石峁遗址夏时代早期样品中出土的植物遗存进行综合研究.通过2012～2019年的浮选工作,共获得了187份夏时代早期样品,出土炭化植物遗存共计17816粒,其中农作物遗存8905粒,包括粟、黍、水稻及大豆;非农作物遗存包括非农作物种子和植物果核等共计61种植物,总数为8911粒,分属于禾本科、藜科、豆科、蔷薇科、菊科、蓼科等.结果 显示,石峁先民夏时代早期的生业模式以农牧业并重为主、采集狩猎为补充.其中,农业结构以粟黍种植为主,还首次发现了少量水稻、大豆等可能为上层先民与周边地区交流获得的稀有食物;畜牧业中,主要利用胡枝子、草木犀、委陵菜属、冷蒿等饲草喂养黄牛、羊等主要家畜;同时,还存在采集果实等行为.石峁先民生业模式的选择是其人群受所处的农牧交错带环境影响产生的结果,"舍不得农业,离不开牧业"即是石峁先民及地区其他同时期人群的真实写照.多样化的生存策略、周边聚落的粮食输入及与其他区域中心的文化交流,保障和巩固了社会复杂化进程中石峁遗址的核心地位,并推动了地区早期国家的产生与发展.

石峁城址是四千年前中国北方城市发展初期阶段的一个主要中心遗址.本文对石峁遗址的东门和韩家圪旦居住区出土的19件陶、石工具进行了微痕和残留物分析,以便了解遗址中不同区域的经济和政治活动的多样性.分析结果显示,两地点出土的石器功能既有相同之处,也有明显区别,并在一定程度上代表两地点人群活动特点.东门的石刀和石杵具有厨房用具的特征,包括制作发酵酒一类的食物,可能与宴饮备餐有关.韩家圪旦的多种类型陶、石工具显示出比较复杂的使用功能:有些专用于收割谷物、加工韧皮纤维或加工粟黍,有些为厨刀,还有一些为多功能工具;其中有些工具也具有加工发酵食物的特征.制作发酵食物的原料主要包括红曲霉、大米、粟黍及小麦族植物,可能与酿造红曲酒等食物有关.这些结果丰富了我们对石峁东门的礼仪性功能及其城内居民生计模式的了解,有助于进一步探索城市发展初期城内不同区域的社会生产分工问题.

戎人在古代多样性文化历史发展进程中有着不可忽视的作用,由于文献记载的匮乏,对其生活历史信息的认知极少.陕西延安黄陵寨头河与史家河战国时期戎人墓地的考古发掘,为了解古代关中地区戎人的社会生活提供了珍贵的实物资料.本文则以两墓地出土的人骨为研究对象,采用C、N稳定同位素分析方法,讨论先民的饮食结构,探索其经济模式.结果表明:寨头河与史家河墓地先民的食谱相似,食谱中植物性食物主要来自粟、黍等C4类作物;除史家河墓地两个个体外,其余先民动物蛋白摄入较少,且未因性别不同而产生食谱差异.史家河墓地战国晚期秦人与早中期戎人的饮食结构相似.结合其他考古资料以及文献可知,寨头河与史家河墓地先民吸收关中农业文化后,利用当地良好的自然环境发展农业,形成了以农业种植为主、农牧混合的经济模式.