Robots are the intelligent systems that connect sensors and actuators. Many sensorimotor architectures use close-loop control codes that arbitrate sensing signals, entailing processing modules. Reactive architectures minimize computational demands by establishing direct sensor-actuator connections and have proven to be effective and robust. Here, we introduce a mechanical analogy of such reactive systems: a fluidic-based multiaxis mechanical soft force sensor (ME-SOFS) that directly couples sensory signals with fluidic actuation, eliminating the need for external computation or energy input. The ME-SOFS can be easily reconfigured and integrated to endow robots with somatosensory multiaxis force sensing capabilities. Based on fluid transduction, ME-SOFS converts applied force into mechanical output for fluidic actuators. We demonstrate this sensing-actuation loop in three scenarios: directional droplet manipulation, unified bending of cilia-like array guided by detected force vectors, and haptic feedback system that accelerates robotic grasping learning. ME-SOFSs demonstrate how fluidic approach can realize multiaxis force sensing for soft robots, and enable simplified, closed sensing-actuation loops and haptic human-machine interfaces.

Replicating the skin's ability to sense touch, feel pain, and heal itself is key to developing the next generation of durable soft electronics. These capabilities become more critical in underwater environments, where divers and underwater machines face severe challenges such as limited dexterity, device damage, and restricted power availability. Here, we develop a self-healing magnetoelectric sensory system (SMES) that uniquely integrates self-powered tactile and proximity sensing with damage detection and autonomous recovery for amphibious operation. The SMES features a multilayer architecture composed of a damage-sensing layer and an underlying magnetoelectric sensing layer, both utilizing a self-healing elastomer with patterned liquid-metal conductors. The design enables the system to detect and recover from pricking, puncturing, and cutting damage while maintaining stable functionality. The SMES exhibits good sensitivity, rapid response, and robust durability in both air and water. Demonstrations with a smart diving glove and a soft robotic hand highlight its potential for noncontact communication and mechanoreception with damage feedback, paving the way toward next-generation amphibious soft machines that can feel and heal like living skin.

Soft robots inspired by living organisms hold the promise of gentle, adaptable interactions with the natural world, but leave behind persistent waste. Now scientists show a fully compostable robotic system that addresses this limitation by offering durable performance and decomposing safely into the soil at the end of its life.

Conventional fluid-driven soft grippers typically depend on external sources, which limit portability and long-term autonomy. This work introduces a self-contained soft gripper with fixed size that operates solely through internal liquid redistribution among three interconnected bistable snap-through chambers. When the top sensing chamber deforms upon contact, the displaced liquid triggers snap-through expansion of the grasping chambers, enabling stable and size-selective grasping without continuous energy input. The internal hydraulic feedback further allows passive adaptation of gripping pressure to object stiffness. This source-free and compact design opens new possibilities for lightweight, stiffness-adaptive fluid-driven manipulation in soft robotics, providing a feasible approach for targeted size-specific sampling and operation in underwater and field environments.

Limited muscle force generation remains a major bottleneck in developing stronger, faster, and more efficient biohybrid robots. We present a fully autonomous self-training platform that strengthens skeletal muscle tissues by harnessing their robust spontaneous contractions. This approach produced muscle actuators with a maximum force of 7.05 mN and a stress of 8.51 mN/mm2, the highest reported for C2C12-derived muscle actuators. To demonstrate their capabilities, we developed a twin-tail muscle-powered ostraciiform swimming robot, OstraBot, and guided its design using a physiology-based muscle contraction model. Model-informed analysis identified stiffness-frequency combinations that maximized muscle energy output, enabling a top speed of 467 mm/min (15.6 body lengths/min), significantly outperforming previously reported skeletal muscle-powered biohybrid robots. The robot demonstrated strong thrust generation and precise on-off controllability through sound-triggered clapping control. This work establishes a versatile platform for producing high-strength skeletal muscle actuators and quantitatively guiding the robotic design for high-performance biohybrid robots.

ABSTRACT Natural polymers are attractive building blocks for sustainable soft materials, yet it remains fundamentally difficult to make them simultaneously tough, functional, and biodegradable. In most cases, natural soft materials are mechanically weak or functionally limited, while strategies that improve one attribute often compromise another. Here, we present a water‐assisted multicomponent design strategy that overcomes this trade‐off and enables a new class of natural elastomeric biogels from simple bio‐derived components. In this approach, water serves primarily as a transient processing medium that enables rapid homogeneous mixing of guar gum, betaine, urea, and malonic acid (GBUM), followed by evaporative assembly into a low‐water‐content, amorphous elastomeric biogel rather than a conventional water‐rich hydrogel. The stable regime is attributed to a combination of competitive hydrogen bonding, ion–dipole interactions, polymer confinement, additive diversity, and retained bound water, rather than a single dominant interaction. The resulting materials exhibit high toughness (up to 5.23 MJ m − 3 ), ionic conductivity (up to 2.3 mS/cm), and subzero resilience (−40°C), while retaining rapid aerobic biodegradation in soil (80% in 7 days). Importantly, the same additive concept extends to other natural polymer matrices, supporting a broader materials design principle rather than a single optimized formulation. These results establish controlled multicomponent assembly as an effective route to tough, functional, and biodegradable natural soft materials with promising relevance for soft ionic devices and bioelectronics.

Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) devices are promising alternatives to organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and light-emitting capacitors (LECs) due to their simple structure and lower operating voltage, yet realizing sufficient luminance for practical applications remains challenging. Here, we report a synergistic material-device strategy for ultrabright electrochemiluminescent (UBECL) devices. Decoupling anion and cation effects reveals ion-dependent control of interfacial charge-transfer dynamics and electrochemical stability in annihilation-ECL. An effective electrolyte with favorable photophysical and electrochemical properties, coupled with an asymmetric device architecture, enhances electrochemical reactivity and maximizes ECL brightness. UBECL device turns on at a low alternating voltage (±1.65 V) and operates under high-frequency driving. It achieves a maximum luminance of 1552 cd m-2 and 1.6 cd A-1 current efficiency, a 3.2- and 2-fold improvement over 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis (trifluoromethylsulfonyl) imide (EMIMTFSI)-based counterparts. Moreover, this flexible UBECL platform enables diverse optoelectronic applications, including multicolor devices with potential for dynamic sensing, real-time digital panels, and robust underwater solid-state devices. This strategy unlocks ultrabright, efficient, high-frequency operation for intuitive visual output.

Surgical resection is the primary method for treating solid tumors, but perioperative immune dysfunction often exacerbates tumor recurrence caused by minimal residual disease (MRD). A perioperative catalytic immunotherapy strategy has been developed based on engineered carbon dots to maintain continuous immune activation signals at the tumor site. Tyrosyl-functionalized, iron-doped phenolic carbon dots (Fe@CDs-T, approximately 7.0 nm) were synthesized with hetero-chelating Fe-N/O sites to efficiently utilize endogenous H2O2. Unlike control carbon dots, Fe@CDs-T triggered a cascade reaction in tumor microenvironment, generated short-lived phenoxyl radicals and achieved covalent self-immobilization on tumor cell membranes. This self-immobilization extended the retention time of the Fe@CDs-T on the cell membrane to about 48 h, compared with approximately 6 h in the tyrosine-unmodified control group, and enabled sustained local radical generation on the membrane. Consequently, significant lipid peroxidation and membrane rupture occurred, leading to 49.2% cell necrosis and efficient release of damage-associated molecular patterns. The resulting immune priming increased memory T cell (62.3%) in the spleen and systemic antitumor immunity. Meanwhile, the lymphatic drainage of Fe@CDs-T allowed visualization of sentinel lymph nodes during surgery for surgical navigation. By transforming transient oxidative signals into sustained membrane-associated immune activation, this nanoplatform bridges the perioperative immune gap, achieving rapid immune activation before surgery and control of MRD after surgery.

Developing a sustainable, in-situ responsive sensing method for continuously monitoring water quality is crucial for water use and quality management globally. Conventional water quality monitoring sensors face challenges in achieving ultrafast response time and are non-recyclable. We present a self-assembly approach for a closed-loop recyclable, autonomous self-healing and transparent dielectric material with nanostructured amphiphobic surfaces (termed 'ReSURF'). Our approach uses tribo-negative small molecules that spontaneously secrete onto the surface of the fluorine dielectric matrix via biomimetic microphase separation within minutes. ReSURF devices achieve millisecond water quality sensing response time (~6 ms), high signal-to-noise ratio (~30.7 dB) and can withstand large mechanical deformations (>760%, maximum of 1000% strain). We show ReSURF can be readily closed-loop recycled for reuse, underscoring its versatility. We further demonstrated its use in a soft stretchable fish-like robot for real-time water contamination (including perfluorooctanoic acid, a member of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and oily pollutants) assessments.

Magneto-responsiveness in living organisms, exemplified by migratory birds navigating vast distances, offers inspiration for soft robots and human-computer interfaces. However, achieving both high magneto-responsiveness and resilient mechanical properties in synthetic materials has been challenging. Here, we develop magneto-iono-elastomers (MINEs), combining exceptional magnetization [2.6 emu (electromagnetic units)/g] with hyperelasticity and self-healability. Such a MINE consists of a magnetic ionic liquid (MIL; [Emim][FeCl4]) and a urethane group-based polymer that can distinctively confine magnetic anions through strong intermolecular interactions, including potential hydrogen bonds and metal-coordination bonds. This confinement enables high MIL loading (80 wt %) while maintaining structure integrity, resulting in a high ionic conductivity exceeding 10-3 S/cm. Furthermore, the synergistic interplay of these reversible bonds in MINEs contributes to an outstanding elastic recovery that surpasses 99%, alongside good self-healing capabilities. The unique combination of these attributes positions MINE as a promising candidate for diverse magnetoelectronic applications, encompassing wearable strain sensors, contactless magneto-responsive electronics, see-through touch panels, and soft magnetic carriers.

Light-driven material systems enable remote control of miniature structures in small-scale manipulation. However, conventional methods often rely on locally focused light, necessitating complex alignment setups and complicating precise modeling. Here, we introduce a versatile framework based on wide-area global illumination to achieve tunable and precise shape control with a simple light setup. By characterizing the feedback loop between light projection and material deformation, we elucidated the fundamental relationship between light field conditions and shape changes in thin-film liquid crystal polymer (LCP) actuators. Based on this, we develop a photo-thermal-mechanical (PTM) kinematic model for accurately predicting actuator deformation. The function of our proposed method has been validated through diverse prototypes, including robotic crawlers, a ball drop-and-catch system with real-time path prediction, and a reconfigurable robotic hand showing 6 different gestures. Our proposed strategy holds great promise for advancing the capabilities of miniature light-driven material systems in robotics and engineering applications.

The increasing reliance on petroleum-based polymers in electronics contributes significantly to electronic waste. Kombucha bacterial cellulose (KBC), a renewable and compostable byproduct of kombucha fermentation, presents an eco-friendly alternative. However, the absence of sustainable fabrication methods for high-performance KBC films has limited their electronic applications. This study introduces an environmentally benign process for pulping, purifying, and forming KBC sheets optimized for sustainable electronics. Treatment with sodium bicarbonate and hydrogen peroxide yields a sterile, white KBC film with enhanced properties. Comprehensive characterization via TGA, XRD, and FTIR confirms the material's high purity and crystallinity while preserving its native chemical structure. Mechanical testing demonstrates that processed KBC films exhibit superior tensile strength compared to untreated samples. Additionally, a gold-sputtering technique is established to create conductive circuits on KBC substrates, achieving stable electrical conductivity even under mechanical stress. As a proof of concept, this platform, in a functional pressure sensor for flatfoot assessment, is successfully implemented. A key advantage of KBC is its rapid biodegradation, completing the material lifecycle within days. These results position KBC as a promising, sustainable biomaterial for next-generation green electronics.

Stretchable mechanoluminescent (ML) photonic skin with strong and stable brightness holds great promise for underwater communication and safety monitoring. However, traditional film-based ML devices often lack the compliance needed to accommodate curved surfaces and face a trade-off between extensibility and luminescent intensity. This study introduces a 3D-printed self-powered auxetic ML photonic skin. By utilizing auxetic materials with a negative Poisson's ratio, we created a stretchable ML device that conforms to complex, curved surfaces, enhancing its applicability in dynamic underwater settings. By encapsulating the auxetic ML structure in silicone, simultaneous improvements in brightness uniformity and stretchability are achieved. The device exhibits remarkable durability, maintaining consistent light emission and mechanical performance over 10 000 cycles, and demonstrates the potential for real-time underwater communication and safety monitoring. Integrated into a glove, a swimming toy, and a gas tank, the photonic skin successfully transmitted Morse code signals and detected gas leaks, showcasing its versatility and robustness in harsh underwater conditions. These findings underscore the potential of this technology to improve safety and efficiency in marine exploration, paving the way for further advancements in underwater robotics and communication.

Alternating-current electroluminescent fibres are promising candidates as light sources for smart textiles and soft machines. However, physical damage from daily use causes device deterioration or failure, making self-healable electroluminescent fibres attractive. In addition, soft robots could benefit from light-emitting combined with magnetically actuated functions. Here, we present a self-healing and actuatable Scalable Hydrogel-clad Ionotronic Nickel-core Electroluminescent (SHINE) fibre which achieves a record luminance of 1068 cd x m-2 at 5.7 V x mu m-1. The SHINE fibre can self-heal across all constituent layers after being severed, recovering 98.6% of pristine luminance and maintaining for over 10 months. SHINE fibre is also magnetically actuatable due to the ferromagnetic nickel electrode core, enabling a soft robotic fibre with omnidirectional actuation and electro-luminescence. Our approach to this multifunctional fibre broadens the design of fibre electronics and fibre robots, with applications in interactive displays and damage-resilient navigation.

Abstract Materials with high stretchability and conductivity are used to fabricate stretchable electronics. Self‐healing capability and four‐dimensional (4D) printability are becoming increasingly important for these materials to facilitate their recovery from damage and endow them with stimuli–response properties. However, it remains challenging to design a single material that combines these four strengths. Here, a dually crosslinked hydrogel is developed by combining a covalently crosslinked acrylic acid (AAC) network and Fe3+ ions through dynamic and reversible ionically crosslinked coordination. The remarkable electrical sensitivity (a gauge factor of 3.93 under a strain of 1500%), superior stretchability (a fracture strain up to 1700%), self‐healing ability (a healing efficiency of 88% and 97% for the mechanical and electrical properties, respectively), and 4D printability of the hydrogel are demonstrated by constructing a strain sensor, a two‐dimensional touch panel, and shape‐morphing structures with water‐responsive behavior. The hydrogel demonstrates vast potential for applications in stretchable electronics.

The direct writing of complex three-dimensional (3D) metallic structures is of use in the development of advanced electronics. However, conventional direct ink writing primarily uses composite inks that have low electrical conductivity and require support materials to create 3D architectures. Here we show that Field's metal-a eutectic alloy with a relatively low melting point-can be 3D printed using a process in which tension between the molten metal in a nozzle and the leading edge of the printed part allows 3D structures to be directly written. The use of tension avoids using external pressure for extrusion (which can cause beading of the printed structure), allowing uniform and smooth microwire structures to be printed on various substrates with speeds of up to 100 mm s-1. We use the approach to print various free-standing 3D structures-including vertical letters, a cubic framework and scalable helixes-without post-treatment, and the resulting Field's metal structures can offer electrical conductivity of 2 x 104 S cm-1, self-healing capability and recyclability. We also use the technique to print a 3D circuit for wearable battery-free temperature sensing, hemispherical helical antennas for wireless vital sign monitoring and 3D metamaterials for electromagnetic-wave manipulation. Free-standing metallic structures with high conductivities and aspect ratios can be 3D printed from Field's metal using a direct ink writing method that avoids using external pressure to drive ink through the nozzle.

Current approaches to triboelectric devices require multiple layers. Here, a transparent ultra-stretchable single active layered ionic-based nanogenerator is shown that can self-heal in both dry and wet environments. Despite being conductive, surprisingly the ionogel exhibits triboelectric properties and generates output voltages ranging from 1.7 to 70 V. By tuning the ionic liquid concentration, unique triboelectric devices with position-detection and energy harvesting ability are developed. This design enables visualization of the mechanical force distribution through the mechano-electric-optical conversion process, which is achieved by changing it from an insulating dielectric material to a tribo-negative ionic conducting material. The triboelectric device maintains its stability and self-healing ability at extreme environments (-20 to 380 degrees C, pH 1.3 to 13), and the device can be fully closed-loop recycled for reuse. Various human-machine interface applications such as untethered self-powered light-emitting jellyfish-like devices are demonstrated, a mechano-thermal sensor array, and tactile recognition of object shapes with over 91% accuracy using convolution neural networks (CNN).

Smart responsive materials that can alter their function in response to environmental changes are attractive for their potential applications in intelligent devices and products. Herein, a smart material that exhibits reversible changes in multiple properties upon variations in humidity or temperature is created. The material spontaneously transits between hydrated and dehydrated states in response to fluctuations in the surrounding humidity or temperature. Consisting of a mixture of poly(propylene glycol) (PPG) with urea linkages (PPGurea) and ionic liquid [EMIM][TFSI], the transition is attributed to a series of synergetic interactions among various chemical components and groups, including ether-cation coordination, water-anion complex, urea-urea bidentate hydrogen bonds, and cation-anion electrostatic interactions. In the hydrated state, with a very small amount (4-5 wt%) of spontaneously absorbed moisture content, the smart material is soft, transparent, and conductive, and possesses rapid self-healing ability. Upon dehydration, the material transits into a phase-separated system with PPG-rich and IL-rich phases, resulting in opacity, severely reduced ionic conductivity, yet significantly enhanced stiffness, strength, and toughness. The drastic change in multiple properties makes it an intelligent material well-suited for various smart applications such as sensors, 3D printed optoelectronics and smart windows, which can automatically alter their functions to adapt to environmental changes. In this article, a smart self-healing polymeric material capable of autonomously altering its mechanical, electrical, and optical properties without requiring external control or power is created. Due to the synergetic effect between the polymer, ionic liquid, and absorbed moisture, the material exhibits moisture or temperature-induced changes in its transparency, conductivity and mechanical behavior. image

Underwater soft robots are typically constructed from soft and flexible materials, which enable them to adapt to aquatic environments where the terrain can be complex. They are often inspired by soft-bodied aquatic animals and can be used for a range of tasks, such as underwater exploration, environmental monitoring, and rescue operations. However, the design of these robots presents significant challenges, as it requires soft materials and systems that can withstand the harsh and varied conditions of ocean environments. This review delves into the physics of soft materials and outlines the constitutive models for such materials. Through an exploration of the muscle structures in aquatic creatures like octopuses and stingrays, we highlight the interplay between the materials that make up artificial muscles and how these muscles interact with their external surroundings. Finally, we conclude by outlining unresolved challenges and providing potential avenues for future research.