Creating highly efficient, cost-effective, and sustainable cellulose aerogel with elasticity and ordered structures is highly desired for purification of complex oily wastewater. Herein, we developed a "bottom-up" strategy to construct an elasticity cellulose micro/nano fibers (CMNF) aerogel without cross-linking agents, which employing cotton stalks-derived multiscale cellulose fibers network as a precursor. The precursor was fabricated via a combination of deep eutectic solvent (DES) pretreatment and ultrasound-assisted assembly approach. By regulating the dispersion states and interactions of the CMNF precursor, along with the growth behavior of ice crystals within it, we successfully constructed an aerogel with anisotropic "wall-septum" structure. After polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) coating, aerogel exhibits stable superhydrophobicity (157.2° water contact angle) and exceptional adsorption capacity (37-92 g·g-1). Moreover, the "wall-septum" structure endows aerogel with outstanding elasticity, the stress loss ratio of low density (16.16 mg·cm-3) aerogel was 4.21% after 50 cycles. Leveraging its outstanding oil-water selectivity, both free oil and emulsified oil can be separated. Notably, the separation flux for water-in-oil (w/o) emulsions exceeds 1811.53 (pump-driven) and 572.11 L·m-2·h-1 (gravity-driven) with high separation efficiency (99.35%). PDMS/CMNF aerogels provides novel insights and prospects for exploring the preparation strategies of multiscale cellulose fiber aerogels which are multifunctional, self-supporting, structurally tunable, and superelastic.

Bio‐based alternatives to conventional photothermal hydrophobic materials are urgently required for sustainable ice mitigation. However, integrating robustness, efficient photothermal conversion, and environmental sustainability in one material remains challenging. Here, a bio‐based photothermal hydrophobic elastomer (LPAT) is synthesized via solvent‐free ring‐opening polymerization (ROP) of α‐lipoic acid (LA), with lignin (AL) incorporated as a renewable photothermal filler. Synergistic disulfide and hydrogen bonding endowed LPAT with high toughness (2.79 MJ·m −3 ) and fracture stress (4.45 MPa). Under simulated solar irradiation, LPAT exhibited rapid photothermal conversion, reaching 135 °C with a temperature rise of 112 °C. Hydrophobicity is retained after thermal and stretching cycles, with water contact angles above 116°. LPAT further demonstrated autonomous self‐healing with 80% efficiency and strong underwater adhesion. In deicing tests, it removed 3‐mm ice within 400 s and suppressed accretion under continuous freezing rain. Swelling resistance, reprocessability, and self‐cleaning enhanced its durability across repeated cycles. This work establishes a universal and sustainable platform for integrating high‐performance photothermal and hydrophobic properties, where efficient solar thermal management offers a fossil‐free alternative and facilitates the upcycling of solid waste into advanced energy materials.

Eutectogels present a promising platform for flexible sensors due to their high ionic conductivity and mechanical adaptability. However, conventional photochemical synthesis still relies on petrochemical-derived photo-initiators and crosslinkers, and poor recyclability contributes to resource waste and environmental impact. Here, we demonstrate a sustainable, solar-driven one-pot strategy to fabricate multifunctional nanocellulose eutectogels without any photoinitiators or crosslinkers. The resulting eutectogels exhibit high tensile strength (0.68 MPa) and elongation (806%), autonomous self-healing with a mechanical strength recovery of 64% within 2 h, and excellent ionic conductivity. The deep eutectic solvent (DES) system acts as a green hydrolytic medium for pretreating lignocellulose to yield high-purity cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) and also functions as a dynamic hydrogen-bonding network that enhances mechanical and conductive properties. These cellulose eutectogels also show broad environmental tolerance, functioning between-20 degrees C and 60 degrees C. When applied in flexible sensing arrays, cellulose eutectogels enable rapid response and stable operation for robotic motion control. This work establishes a sustainable one-pot route integrating CNF extraction and eutectogel fabrication within a DES-based closed-loop process, avoiding hazardous reagents and enabling scalable green production of functional gels for next-generation electronics and human-machine interfaces.

Ionogels, as soft ionic conductors, face synthesis challenges including toxicity, complexity, and high energy consumption. Herein, we present a green one-pot strategy that effectively dissolves cellulose and undergoes sunlight-induced photopolymerization to form ionogels without the need for cross-linkers or initiators. 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([BMIM]Cl), as the solvent, enables the disruption of the extensive hydrogen-bond network of cellulose, resulting in rapid and complete dissolution. Subsequent one-step photopolymerization, which proceeds solely under sunlight, simultaneously drives in situ cross-linking and a controlled phase separation process, yielding high-performance ionogels. Importantly, the resulting cellulose ionogel exhibits superior fracture strength (2.75 MPa), high toughness (18.4 MJ m-3), and strong adhesion (6.6 MPa), ameliorating the traditional trade-off between mechanical strength and adhesion capabilities. This work develops an integrated ionogel platform as a soft TENG electrode for human motion monitoring, informing the design of sustainable self-powered electronics.

Flexible bioelectronic interfaces hold great promise for advancing modern healthcare and human-machine interactions. However, current bioelectronic interface technologies remain constrained by the intricate surface conditions of injured tissues. Even with intimate tissue-electrode adhesion, achieving simultaneous sensing and therapeutic intervention poses a formidable challenge. Here, we employed the principle of liquid-to-solid conversion to develop a seamless in situ forming biointerface platform, TLMG hydrogel, with robust and stable adhesion to irregular skin wounds, enhanced mechanical properties, real-time high-fidelity signal monitoring, and on-demand therapeutic effect for wound healing. By incorporating tea polyphenols/lignin microspheres, the TLMG hydrogel effectively achieved the integration of bioelectronic and bioactive interfaces. The multiple features of this in situ biointerface encompassed robust in situ adhesion (200 kPa), high ionic conductivity (0.27 mS cm-1), and exceptional mechanical stability. Furthermore, the findings from several complex animal models and human tests proved the intelligent wound management, real-time dynamic signal monitoring, and wound healing boosting via immunomodulatory mechanisms. These results convincingly indicate that the TLMG biointerfacing platform provides a promising solution for integrated bioelectronic medicine for wearable healthcare systems.

Hydrogel-based flexible triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) have garnered increasing attention due to the combined merits of high transparency, stretchability, and adjustable ionic conductivity. However, the inferior low-temperature tolerance and the non-biodegradability of the most conductive gel materials limit applications in extreme environment and result in adverse electronic waste. Herein, we report a binary-component composite eutectogel by direct solar-initiated in situ photopolymerization within bacterial cellulose (BC) template without cross-linker, yielding desirable anti-freezing, self-healing, and degradable gel electrode for the applications of self-powered TENG in energy harvesting and human-computer interaction. The composite eutectogels exhibited high mechanical strength (12.37 MPa), toughness (38.19 MJ-3), transparency (90 %), conductivity (0.049 mS/ cm), wide temperature tolerance (-40-60 degrees C), and excellent biodegradability (within 8 h). Notably, the eutectogels-assembled TENG exhibits remarkable performance in terms of open-circuit voltage (275 V), shortcircuit current (1.8 mu A), power density reaching high levels (165 mW/m2), and stable electrical output (Cycling 6000 times). The eutectogels-assembled TENG can be utilized for energy harvesting to power commercial electronics and served as a self-powered sensor for real-time human motion monitoring. As proof of concept, we present a compelling demonstration showcasing the potential application of TENGs as self-powered pianos for human-computer interaction, providing an elegant and sustainable new perspective to design ecofriendly and flexible electronics with superior environment adaptability.

Eutectogels, an emerging class of flexible ionic materials, emerge as promising alternatives to ionogels and hydrogels, offering new avenues for the design of advanced functional materials. However, current eutectogels still face significant limitations, particularly their poor mechanical reliability under harsh conditions, stemming from inherently low toughness and the absence of effective energy-dissipation mechanisms. Inspired by the hierarchical structure of human skin, we develop a biomimetic structural engineering strategy to construct fatigue-resistant eutectogels featuring interlayer-interlocking hierarchical architectures and nanocrystalline domains. The interlayer-interlocking architecture forms via moderate alignment of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) layers and robust interfacial interlocking, which facilitates load transfer and energy dissipation through critical interlayer anchor points. Concurrently, dense crystalline domains formed via solvent exchange effectively suppress crack propagation, thereby endowing the materials with exceptional mechanical properties. This design strategy yields remarkable performance metrics, including a superior fatigue threshold of 1552 J m(-2), exceptional fracture energy of 920 kJ/m(2), and outstanding durability (withstanding 104 stretching and bending fatigue cycles). Furthermore, the achieved fatigue resistance and crack insensitivity ensure the robust durability of heterogeneous eutectogels for application in bionic flapping-wing aerial vehicles (FWAVs). This work provides a framework for fabricating high-performance soft materials with enhanced mechanical properties.

Flexible electronics is undergoing a transition from single-function devices to intelligent systems capable of multimodal perception and closed-loop operation. Multifunctional hydrogels have emerged as a core platform for next-generation electronics, owing to their structural tailorability, biomimetic compatibility, dynamic responsiveness, and exceptional interfacial properties. This review outlines a cross-scale design pathway of hydrogel electronics spanning molecular strategies and microstructural architectures to macroscopic functionalities (mechano-electro-thermo-chemical responses) and system-level integration. We critically survey recent advancements in hydrogel-based applications, including wearable health monitoring, electronic skin, soft robotics, and self-powered devices, highlighting their unique advantages in high-fidelity signal acquisition, autonomous energy management, and long-term stability under complex conditions. Furthermore, we explore how AI-driven inverse design, digital twins, and in situ characterization are accelerating the shift from empirical to model-driven development of hydrogel electronics. A performance evaluation framework based on the "energy-signal coupling coefficient" is introduced, combining with green design principles promoting circular sustainability. Finally, we outline future challenges and opportunities to achieve extreme environmental adaptability and promote standardization and scalable manufacturing. Interdisciplinary integration and AI-assisted multimodal data analytics will ultimately advance hydrogel electronics from functional devices to fully intelligent bio-integrated systems.

Biomass-derived hydrogels bridge the worlds of renewable natural sources and advanced electronics, offering a unique combination of biodegradability, biocompatibility, and highly tunable physicochemical characteristics. These features are pivotal for the development of next-generation self-powered flexible electronics. This review summarizes recent advances in structural and molecular design of biomass hydrogels, with emphasis on engineering strategies and composites that integrate sensing and energy conversion functions. We systematically examine how hierarchical architectural design facilitates precise modulation of mechanical, electrical, and biochemical properties, laying the material foundation for multifunctional applications. Furthermore, this review also highlights frontier applications in flexible sensing and energy systems, spanning physiological monitoring, triboelectric nanogenerators, supercapacitors, and biofuel cells for storage and conversion, and culminating in a dedicated discussion of their converging roles within self-powered platforms. By discussing the coupling of sensing and energy modules in unified hydrogel frameworks, we highlight how material innovation and structural engineering enable autonomous operation and reliable human-machine interfaces. Finally, we outline future directions toward intelligent and sustainable electronics, emphasizing the role of biomass hydrogels in developing eco-friendly and self-sufficient flexible systems.

The imperative for individualized and multidimensional health data critically demands sensing solutions spanning from convenient external screening to continuous internal monitoring. Cellulose, a naturally abundant and versatile biopolymer, is rapidly emerging as an ideal platform for medical sensing, enabling safe and efficient operation from wearable epidermal patches to implantable sensors and scaffolds. Such paradigm seamlessly encompasses the entire disease management cycle, including prevention, diagnosis, treatment monitoring, and rehabilitation. Herein, we critically examine the latest advances and persisting challenges in cellulose-based sensing for both in vitro (e.g., rapid tests, wearable diagnostics) and in vivo (e.g., drug platforms, smart scaffolds) medical applications. This perspective highlights how the cellulose-based materials facilitate the critical biomarkers acquisition across the healthcare continuum. We further discuss integrating these diverse data streams into a closed-loop framework spanning screening, monitoring, data fusion, and precise intervention for advancing personalized healthcare. Finally, we propose a roadmap for the convergent approaches combining synthetic biology, artificial intelligence-driven material design, and nanotechnology integration in accelerating the personalized clinical translation. We highlight major challenges in achieving robust, long-term performance and seamless data integration, calling for further interdisciplinary efforts to maximize the potential of cellulose-based materials in realizing truly data-driven personalized healthcare.

Polymeric nanofibrous membranes attract significant interest in oil/water separation due to high porosity, tunable pore size and customizable surfaces, while their intrinsic hydrophilicity deficits compromise their separation performance and anti-fouling properties. Owing to its intrinsic hydrophilic nature and biocompatibility, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) is commonly used to improve antifouling performance. However, the excessive hydrophilicity of PVP hinders its structural integrity, preventing its widespread deployment in aqueous environments. Herein, a metal-phenolic network (Tannic acid-Ca2+, TA-Ca2+) was used for hydrogen-bonding assembly with PVP to design freestanding membrane material. Subsequently, the coordination assembly of natural phytic acid (PA) endowed the membrane a potent hydration barrier against oil-fouling and enhanced mechanical strength by 491 %(1.83 -> 9.03 MPa). The resulting nanofiber membrane exhibited intrinsic superhydrophilicity and good swelling stability, achieving 2.9 x 10(4) Lm(-2)h(-1)bar(-1) permeability for oil/water emulsions with separation efficiency above 99.7 % under gravity (similar to 1 KPa). Moreover, through altering coordination metal ions, a series of self-assembly PVP-based membranes can be constructed with both internal and external super-wettability, providing a source of inspiration for the development of advanced separation membranes with high separation efficiency, long-lasting anti-fouling properties, and low energy consumption.

Mechanical forces play a critical role in the oral and maxillofacial region. Understanding cellular responses to mechanical forces is essential. However, current mechanobiological studies are largely confined to 2D cultures, which poorly represent native 3D contexts. Although hydrogels offer promise for 3D studies, integrating high-magnitude mechanical stretch with biocompatibility remains challenging. This study developed a novel collagen-based gelatin/cellulose nanocrystal/alginate (C-GCA) hydrogel. The elongation at break of the hydrogel reaches 95.4%, demonstrating excellent tensile properties, which is attributed to the reinforcing effect of CNCs and SA. Concurrently, the presence of collagen and gelatin confers favorable biocompatibility to the hydrogel (cell viability exceeding 95%). Crucially, the biological responses of Periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs) laden in the C-GCA hydrogel-based 3D microenvironment were strain-dependent. Under 20% tensile strain, the expression of osteogenesis-related genes, namely RUNX-2, OSX, COL1A1, and OPN, was 3.1, 4.1, 1.7 and 2.8 times that of the control group, respectively. Meanwhile, the cell projection area increased by 1.38 folds, and the apoptosis rate reduced by 45.5%. Overall, the C-GCA hydrogel not only provides a solid foundation for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of mechanostimulation in the oral and maxillofacial regions but also offers new strategies for the biomedical material design.

Oily wastewater poses significant ecological hazards, necessitating the development of effective, reusable, and environmentally friendly sorbent materials for efficient oil/water separation. Here, we report the fabrication of a superhydrophobic aerogel composed of gellan gum (GG), konjac glucomannan (KGM), and bamboo fiber (BF), cross-linked with 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether (BDGE), and engineered into a hydrophobic cuttlebone-like structure via directional freeze-drying and vapor-phase deposition. The resulting superhydrophobic aerogel (H-GG/KGM/BF) exhibits a porosity of 98.46% and a density of 0.02354 g·cm-3, with an excellent sorption capacity ranging from 18.08 to 75.66 g·g-1, and it undergoes complete biodegradation within 3 weeks. It demonstrates superhydrophobicity and oil affinity, attributable to its porous lamellar architecture and S-shaped cross-section pillars, which also confer high compressibility and durability over 30 compression cycles at 30% strain. In addition to oil sorption, the material enables continuous oil/water separation with an efficiency of 98.7% and a flux exceeding 4700 L·m-2·h-1, highlighting its potential as a reusable sorbent for environmental remediation.

The increasing scarcity of freshwater resources has driven the rapid emergence of solar-driven interfacial evaporators (SDIEs) as a sustainable approach to harvest fresh water by utilizing solar energy. Lignocellulosic biomass, featuring natural abundance, excellent renewability, unique natural structures, and superior biodegradability compared to the synthetic polymers, is highly attractive for constructing solar steam generators. This review aims to offer an innovative and in-depth insight into designing and optimizing high-performance integrated solar interfacial evaporators derived from renewable lignocellulosic biomass. First, the structural characteristics of lignocellulosic biomass are briefly introduced, serving as photothermal layer or supporting substrates in SDIEs. Secondly, the fabrication methods and processing technologies of lignocellulosic biomass-based evaporators are summarized from the perspective of photothermal layer and supporting substrates. Next, the most recent advances of regulation and optimization strategies are proposed to improve evaporation efficiency. Subsequently, this review summarizes the diverse functionalities of SDIEs, including desalination, power generation, wastewater treatment and antimicrobial, atmospheric water harvesting, and photocatalytic hydrogen production. Finally, the challenges in this field and outlook on the future development are discussed, which are anticipated to provide new opportunities for the advancement of lignocellulosic biomass-based SDIEs.

Epidermal electrodes are essential for long-term and high-fidelity electrophysiological monitoring but often fail to maintain structural integrity during daily routines, especially under extreme mechanical disturbance. Herein, we engineer a mechanically resilient and conductive bilayer hydrogel (BLH) electrode based on rapid in situ gelation (94 s) to achieve robust topological integration with a rigid bacterial cellulose (BC) stress carrier. The oxide layer of the uniformed liquid metal droplets continuously releases •O-, catalyzing the abstraction of hydrogen atoms from monomers to generate free radicals, thus facilitating the rapid in situ polymerization and stable interfacial coupling of heterogeneous bilayer hydrogel design. Finite element analysis further substantiates that this architecture relies on the stress-prioritized dispersion within the high-modulus stress carrier that efficiently mitigates structural degradation and electrochemical performance deterioration induced by external stress concentration. Consequently, the BLH electrode exhibits robust mechanical properties and sustained durability, maintaining stable performance after 50,000 bending cycles and 3000 impacts, collectively enabling reliable long-term signal acquisition (SNR, ∼16.1 dB) in complex motion scenarios. This ingenious architectural strategy holds great promise, offering a transformative perspective for developing highly integrated and mechanically stable hydrogel electrodes in high-fidelity signal acquisition under complex mechanics.

Impact resistant materials play a crucial role in personal protection. However, traditional stiff and rigid impact-resistant materials often lack sufficient compliance and flexibility. Hydrogels, known for their inherent softness and compatibility with electromechanical signal monitoring, offer great promise but suffer from inadequate toughness and limited energy dissipation under impact. Inspired by naturally interlocked architectures capable of mitigating stress concentration, a biomimetic lamellar hydrogel was constructed via a layer-by-layer assembly and compression-assisted approach. As an interlayer crosslinking agent, demethylated wood powder exhibited elevated phenolic hydroxyl group content and enhanced surface polarity, thereby facilitating abundant interfacial interactions with the lamellar gel matrix. These interactions, predominantly hydrogen bonding, promoted particle bridging and interfacial interlocking to effectively inhibit crack propagation, affording exceptional flexibility characterized by a high tensile strength of 14.5 MPa, and an ultimate strain of 500%, while achieving a 21% reduction in impact force and delivering an extraordinary energy dissipation capacity of 79.48 J m-1. Furthermore, a reticulated electrode pattern was integrated onto the hydrogel to enable puncture detection functionality for intelligent protective systems. This work provides insights for the development of high impact resistant and flexible materials for the next generation advanced personal protection applications.

To achieve high-value utilization of lignin, kraft lignin (KL) extracted from eucalyptus pulping black liquor was modified by demethylation using Lewis acids AlCl3 (AL) and HBr (HL) and used to partially substitute of polypropylene glycol (PPG) to prepare lignin-based waterborne polyurethane (WPU) emulsion by reacting with isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI). The results of 1H NMR spectra showed that the hydroxyl content of lignin were respectively 10.13 mmol/g and 8.31 mmol/g after demethylation with AlCl3 and HBr, which were 73.2 % and 43.1 % higher than that of KL. When 20 wt% of PPG was replaced by AL and HL, the prepared ALWPU-20 % and HLWPU-20 % emulsions had good dispersion and storage stability, with an average particle size of 400 nm and a viscosity of 35.3 Pa & sdot;s and 24.5 Pa & sdot;s, respectively. Both ALWPU-20 % and HLWPU-20 % films had good mechanical strength, thermal stability and biodegradability, and their crosslinking density, tensile strength and natural degradation rate after 100 days' landfilling were 19.1 mmol/cm3 and 17.2 mmol/cm3, 10.9 MPa and 10.3 MPa, and 19.21 % and 21.21 %, respectively. Moreover, ALWPU-20 % and HLWPU-20 % films had excellent ultraviolet (UV) shielding performance and the UV light transmittance of them was nearly zero. Compared with HL, AL had higher reactivity and ALWPU-20 % emulsion and film had better comprehensive performance.

The persistent discord between rigid electronics and dynamic biological systems necessitates paradigm-shifting materials to realize seamless human-machine symbiosis. As inherently adaptive mediators, gallium-based liquid metals (Ga-LMs), have evolved beyond traditional flexible circuitry to pioneer disruptive closed-loop interfaces in neuroprosthetics, responsive robotics, and embodied artificial intelligence. Dynamic interfacial engineering provides a foundational strategy for orchestrating Ga-LMs’ solid-liquid duality through field-guided topological adaptation, reversible morphological reconfiguration, and stimuli-responsive self-organization. In this review, we present the hierarchical design of Ga-LMs-enabled cybernetic systems from molecular-scale mediation to functional macroscopic assemblies. We provide a mechanistic perspective on how the electronic compliance, energy transduction efficiency, and adaptive response fidelity of these interfaces can be regulated via interfacial dynamics. Meanwhile, by emphasizing significant capabilities of Ga-LMs in smart healthcare, soft robotics, and intelligent assistive devices, this review identifies persistent challenges in long-term operational stability, biosafety protocols, and heterogeneous system interoperability as pivotal frontiers requiring concerted research efforts. Finally, we examine how such approaches advance closed-loop electronics through self-passivating architectures and bioresorbable designs, while highlighting critical challenges in chronic biocompatibility and cross-system interoperability. We call for intensified focus on interfacial decoding strategies to fully unlock liquid metals’ potential as human-machine interfaces for cognitive-physical harmonization in closed-loop human-machine ecosystems.

Reliable acquisition of surface electromyography (sEMG) during dynamic motion is essential for high‑accuracy movement recognition, yet remains challenging as current wearable sEMG systems often suffer from signal degradation and motion artifacts induced by continuous skin deformation. Here, we present a wearable sEMG platform that integrates a loofah fiber-reinforced eutectogel with a perforated flexible printed circuit (FPC) designed for robust signal acquisition under dynamic motion. The fibers disperse stress to maintain gel integrity, while the perforated FPC enhances conformal skin adhesion, together enabling stable interface contact and high‑fidelity signal acquisition. The six‑channel electrode array monitors synergistic muscle activation and exhibits excellent durability over 100,000 bending cycles and accurately records sEMG under dynamic movements with up to 40% mechanical strain. After a 7-day cultivation period, the cell survival rate reached 99.99%. Its high biocompatibility can reduce the risk of skin irritation and support the comfort of long-term wearing. In real‑time tests, multichannel sEMG signals are successfully acquired and classified for various lower‑limb movements using machine learning, achieving 96.25% recognition accuracy. This work provides a material‑structural integrated strategy for robust bioelectric sensing in high‑dynamic scenarios, with promising applications in intelligent training, personalized rehabilitation, and next‑generation human-computer interaction.

As an environmentally friendly and efficient fire extinguishing agent, C6F12O (CFO) is widely used for various types of fires. However, due to its low vaporization temperature and high vapor pressure, it is difficult to store and utilize. In order to reduce the loss and improve fire suppression efficiency of CFO, the complex coacervation method was employed to encapsulate CFO using a polymer material shell composed of gelatin (GE) and arabic gum (GA). The experimental results demonstrated that the preparation parameters had a significant impact on the microcapsule encapsulation efficiency. When the coacervation temperature was set to 40 degrees C, the coacervation pH value was maintained at 3.8, the shell material concentration was adjusted to 8 %, and the core-shell mass ratio was kept at 4:1, the microcapsule encapsulation efficiency reached its peak at 26.4 %. CFO was successfully encapsulated as confirmed by characterization techniques such as TG, FT-IR, SEM, and 19F NMR. CFO was released by breaking through the shell when the microcapsules reached the thermal response temperature. Additionally, the fire suppression tests showed that the microcapsules exhibited highly efficient fire extinguishing performance. They decreased the maximum temperature of the n-heptane flame by 196.7 degrees C, lowered the temperature rate by 4.07 degrees C/s, and shortened the self-extinguishing time by 47 s. These results provide a new and effective solution for the microencapsulation of heat-sensitive materials and early-stage fire suppression.