ABSTRACT:Hicks, DS, Fox, J, Russo, MP, Baker, S, Ranford, D, and Bird, SP. Neuromuscular warm-ups and lower-limb injury risk: A 12-week pilot study in female youth basketball. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-This study examined the effects of a 12-week neuromuscular warm-up program (NMWP) on changes to force-time variables during countermovement jump (CMJ) and drop jump (DJ) actions, and their association with modifiable lower-limb injury risk factors. A repeated-measures design was used to compare force-time variables in 13 female youth representative basketball players, with pre and post force-time data collected from CMJ and DJ actions using force plates. Once divided into experimental and control groups (EG and CG), the EG performed the NMWP in the 12-minute period before the on-court session, twice a week for 12 weeks. The CG completed a generalized dynamic warm-up which was volume and duration matched. Analyses were performed using linear mixed models, cluster, and principal component analysis with significance set at p ≤ 0.05. Significant time × group interactions were observed for mean and peak propulsive power (CMJ), indicating greater improvements in the EG (d = -2.40 to -1.93) compared with the CG. Similar interactions were observed for mean propulsive force, mean and peak propulsive power, reactive strength index, and net propulsive impulse during the DJ, reflecting a greater change in the EG (d = -2.15 to -1.46). Nonsignificant, positive pre-post changes were noted for mean and peak braking force. This pilot study showed a 3-month NMWP produced meaningful improvements in CMJ and DJ force-time characteristics, jump outcomes, and jump strategies associated with favorable biomechanical adaptations relevant to injury risk.

Understanding how internal and external loads interact is critical for optimising basketball performance. This two-season study quantified internal (session-RPE, wellness) and external (IMU-derived accelerations, decelerations, distance, sprints, heart rate, and jumps) demands across 36 games, 292 trainings, and 74 skill sessions in 18 players (20.6 ± 1.3 years, 191.9 ± 6.5 cm, 87.3 ± 7.2 kg). Players were classified as starters (>24 min/game-1), rotation (10-24 min-1), or bench (< 10 min-1). Starters accumulated greater game loads (ES = 1.65) and high intensity sprints (ES = 1.32) than rotation and bench players (p < .05). Trainings produced higher total volume but lower intensity, while games elicited more accelerations and decelerations (Zone 2 accelerations = 142 ± 38 and 27 ± 10; Zone 3 = 75 ± 44 and 67 ± 20, respectively). Game sRPE correlated with accelerations (Zone 2: r = .70; Zone 3: r = .54) and decelerations (Zone 2: r = .68; Zone 3: r = .52), indicating that sRPE reflects high-intensity demand. Integrating internal and external measures clarifies workload. Practically, bench and rotation players may benefit from high-intensity exposure, whereas moderating volume around MD + 2 may support recovery. Findings show role-specific patterns guiding evidence-based load management.

Background: Blood flow restriction (BFR) training induces morphological and neuromuscular adaptations using low-intensity exercise (20–40% 1RM), offering a reduced mechanical load alternative to traditional high-load resistance training. Safe and effective implementation, however, requires a clear understanding of physiological mechanisms, contraindications, and pressure determination methodologies. In this three-part series, we provide a comprehensive review of BFR for athletic populations and provide strength and conditioning coaches with a structured framework for screening, safety, and methodological considerations to support BFR integration in high-performance settings. Methods: A narrative review of the literature examining BFR safety, contraindication screening, adverse event reporting, and occlusion pressure determination was conducted using a PubMed and MEDLINE search. Search terms included combinations of (“blood flow restriction” OR “BFR” OR “occlusion training” OR “KAATSU”) AND (“safety” OR “contraindications” OR “risk stratification”) AND (“arterial occlusion pressure” OR “limb occlusion pressure” OR “occlusion pressure” OR “Doppler” OR “handheld Doppler” OR “pulse oximetry” OR “cuff width” OR “capillary refill time” OR “monitoring”). Studies examining contraindication screening systems, arterial occlusion pressure calculation methods, and real-time monitoring protocols were evaluated. Primary considerations included risk stratification frameworks, pressure determination accuracy, and control parameter validation for ensuring vascular safety during application. Results: Risk stratification systems can effectively identify absolute and relative contraindications requiring medical clearance prior to BFR use. Epidemiological data indicate that adverse events are transient and non-serious, while serious events appear rare when evidence-informed protocols are applied. Doppler-based assessment remains a criterion approach for determining inflation pressure, although validated estimation methods using limb circumference and systolic blood pressure offer a pragmatic and comparable alternative for applied environments. Inflation pressures of 50–80% arterial occlusion, adjusted for cuff width, produce effective and safe stimulus. Real-time monitoring through capillary refill time, pulse strength palpation, and skin coloration can support iterative pressure optimization and help identify excessive restriction pressures. Conclusions: BFR implementation in athletic populations requires systematic screening protocols, individualized inflation pressure determination using validated methods, and real-time monitoring parameters. These foundations provide the essential safety infrastructure required before progressing to specific training applications across resistance, cardiovascular, and other performance and rehabilitation modalities.

Background: Blood flow restriction (BFR) resistance exercise has emerged as a training methodology capable of inducing muscular adaptations comparable to traditional high-load training despite substantially lower mechanical loads. While low-load BFR protocols (20–50% 1RM) are well-established, emerging evidence supports applications across the full loading spectrum, including moderate-to-high loads (>50–90% 1RM), contralateral training effects, and proximal–distal adaptations. In this second installment of the Blood Flow Restriction in Athletic Populations series, we review current evidence on BFR resistance exercise in athletic populations, with emphasis on morphological, neuromuscular, and functional adaptations across diverse application contexts. Methods: A narrative review of research examining BFR resistance exercise in trained and athletic populations was conducted via a PubMed/MEDLINE search. Search terms: (“blood flow restriction” OR “BFR” OR “occlusion training” OR “KAATSU”) AND (“resistance training” OR “resistance exercise” OR “strength training”) AND (“athletes” OR “athletic” OR “trained” OR “elite” OR “sport”) AND (“cross-education” OR “contralateral” OR “cross transfer” OR “proximal” OR “distal”). Studies investigating low-load (20–50% 1RM) and moderate-to-high load (>50% 1RM) protocols, contralateral cross-education effects, and proximal–distal adaptations were evaluated. Primary outcomes included muscle hypertrophy, strength, power, and sport-specific performance measures. Results: Low-load BFR resistance exercise has been shown to produce significant improvements in muscle hypertrophy and strength gains over 4–12 week interventions compared to low-load control conditions. Moderate-to-high load BFR enhanced barbell velocity and power output, particularly at loads > 80% 1RM with intermittent inflation protocols. Contralateral and cross-transfer effects of BFR training demonstrate variable efficacy across muscle groups, with the most consistent evidence supporting cross-transfer enhancement of training adaptations when BFR is applied to one body region while exercising another. Proximal BFR application induced adaptations in both proximal and distal musculature, suggesting systemic mechanisms beyond local vascular restriction. Conclusions: BFR resistance exercise represents a versatile training modality producing meaningful morphological and neuromuscular adaptations across the loading spectrum. Contralateral and proximal–distal effects expand practical applications for injury rehabilitation and targeted adaptation. These findings support BFR integration within periodized training programs when mechanical load management is prioritized.

The establishment of the International Qualification Framework (IQF) represented a seminal advancement towards standardising education and certification levels in the profession of strength and conditioning (S&C). By providing a standardised and internationally unified structure, the IQF directly addresses the long-standing disparities and inconsistencies noted in education and qualification recognition globally. However, the credibility and effectiveness of such a global qualification framework depends upon robust policies and detailed independent regulatory oversight. The IQF Independent Regulatory Council (IQF-IRC) has therefore been established as an autonomous body, specifically designed to oversee the IQF including its education, accreditation, and certification processes. This position statement outlines the governance structure, core responsibilities, professional relevance, and strategic objectives of the IQF-IRC. It will also discuss the benefits of voluntary alignment by global S&C organisations, ultimately fostering a cohesive and universally accepted education and accreditation system that can be presented to the wider industry and public.

The main purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of functional circuit training using electro muscle stimulation in improving performance. This type of study is quantitative using quasi-experimental and pre-test post-test control group design. The inclusion criteria for this study were healthy men aged 19-23 years, with a normal BMI and normal blood pressure before exercise. Participants were asked to refrain from consuming coffee and supplements that enhance physical performance. The exclusion criteria for this study were athletes actively participating in sports. A total of 30 students, selected using purposive sampling techniques, participated in this study. The subjects were then divided into two groups. Group 1 was given functional circuit training using electro muscle stimulation and group 2 was given functional circuit training without using electro muscle stimulation. Data was taken from pret-est and post-test arm muscle strength, leg muscle strength, abdominal muscle strength, arm muscle endurance, leg muscle endurance, and abdominal muscle endurance. The functional circuit training was carried out for 8 weeks with a frquency of 3x/week. There were 9 posts of circuit functional training including post 1: jf dumbbell bent over row, post 2: jf resistance bent crunch, post 3: jf suspension side lunges, post 4: jf dumbbell rear deltoids, post 5: jf resistance band glute bridge, post 6: jf suspension hamstring curl, post 7: jf dumbbell biceps curl, post 8: jf resistance bicycle crunch, and post 9: jf suspension mountain climber. The subjects did 3 sets with duration of 20 seconds for each post and 3 minutes rest for each set. Data were analyzed using paired t-test and independent t-test with a significance level of p<0.05. The results of this study reported that functional circuit training using electro muscle stimulation and functional training without using electro muscle stimulation both had a significant effect on increasing arm muscle strength, leg muscle strength, abdominal muscle strength, arm muscle endurance, leg muscle endurance, and abdominal muscle endurance. The results of the independent t test reported that there was a significant difference in functional circuit training using electro muscle stimulation and functional training without using electro muscle stimulation (P <0.05). We recommend that these exercises be considered when developing a training program.

Background and Objectives: Proper nutrition and hydration are essential for the health, growth, and athletic performance of student-athletes. Adequate energy availability and sufficient intake of macro- and micronutrients support adolescent development, prevent nutrient deficiencies, and reduce the risk of disordered eating. These challenges are particularly relevant to student-athletes, who are vulnerable to nutrition misinformation and often exhibit limited nutrition knowledge. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of the ‘Eat 2 Win’ nutrition education pilot program for high school student-athletes and assess changes in nutrition knowledge using the Nutrition for Sport Knowledge Questionnaire—Adolescents (NSKQ-a). Methods: Fifty-five high school student-athletes (14.1 ± 2.2 years; 53% male, 47% female) from the Bremer State High School Sports Academy participated in the ‘Eat 2 Win’ program. The curriculum was tailored to align with the nutritional needs of Australian high school student-athletes and included three interactive workshops on sports nutrition concepts, practical cooking classes, and online learning modules. Sessions were delivered onsite at the school over three consecutive weeks, once per week. Twenty-four participants (43.6%) completed all program components. Results: The program was feasible and well-accepted by participants. Nutrition knowledge, assessed in 16 participants using the NSKQ-a, revealing an overall knowledge increase of 9.7%, with sub-category improvements ranging from 3.1% to 34.4%. Conclusions: The ‘Eat 2 Win’ pilot program improved student-athletes’ nutrition knowledge, particularly in macronutrients and hydration. Participant feedback highlighted enjoyment and positive impacts. Targeted nutrition education programs like ‘Eat 2 Win’ can empower student-athletes to make informed dietary choices by addressing knowledge gaps, debunking nutrition myths, and fostering positive dietary behaviours. Future programs should emphasize energy intake, practical skills, and accessible, actionable information.

This study aimed to develop the first valid questionnaire to assess menstrual cycle (MC) and hormonal contraceptive (HC) knowledge in athletes and sports performance support staff. Questions were developed following a literature review and four knowledge domains were identified: (1) Normal MC Function, (2) MC Dysfunction, (3) Oral Contraceptive Pills, and (4) Other HCs. Experts (n = 6) reviewed the initial questionnaire, followed by pre-testing with athletes and support staff (n = 19). Validity (item analysis, construct validity) and reliability (test-retest, internal consistency) were assessed following questionnaire administration to athletes and staff without MC education ("Low Knowledge" [LK] group; n = 156) and "High Knowledge" [HK] participants (n = 30) with MC education. Most (n = 122) LK participants completed the questionnaire twice to assess test-retest reliability. Expert review showed good agreement (> 80%) on item clarity and relevancy and pre-testing indicated good content and face validity. The HK group scored significantly higher than LK participants across the questionnaire (43 ± 5 vs. 28 ± 10; p < 0.001; d = 1.48 [1.05, 1.90]) and all knowledge domains (p < 0.05). High item discrimination parameters were found for all domains, indicating effective discrimination between respondents with different knowledge levels. Test-retest reliability was excellent (intra-class correlation coefficient estimates from 0.93 [0.90, 0.95] to 0.98 [0.96, 0.99]), with all domains showing good-to-excellent reliability. Internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha) was considered acceptable (0.93 [0.92, 0.95]; α ≥ 0.7). This questionnaire delivers a valid and reliable tool to assess MC and HC knowledge amongst athletes and support staff and is recommended to guide and evaluate educational interventions to improve menstrual health literacy within sport.

OBJECTIVES:The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between acute and chronic loads, and the fatigue response within male elite professional football players. DESIGN:40-week longitudinal study across the 2021-2022 season in the English Championship. METHODS:Twenty-three outfield football players had workload measured using global positioning system (Distance, High-Intensity Distance and Sprint Distance) and perceived exertion. Load-response was measured via a perceived wellbeing questionnaire, counter-movement jump (CMJ) and salivary immunoglobulin A. RESULTS:General estimating equation models identified 18 significant interactions between workload and load-response markers. Thirteen significant interactions were found between acute and chronic workloads and CMJ variables, jump height, eccentric duration and flight contraction time. A poor CMJ was observed when acute sprint workload was >+1 standard deviation and chronic distance increased. However, when chronic perceived exertion increased, and acute sprint workload was >+1 standard deviation an advantageous response was detected on counter movement jump variables. The S-IgA response to acute and chronic workload was more variable; when chronic loads were >+1 standard deviation above mean values and acute workload increased, salivary immunoglobulin A was both suppressed and elevated depending on the interacting acute variable. Higher chronic workload was associated with better perceived wellbeing, even when acute workload was >+1 standard deviation above the mean. CONCLUSION:In general, low chronic workloads and acute spikes in workload were associated with poorer neuromuscular and immune function. Furthermore, CMJ performance and perceived wellbeing improved when chronic workloads were higher, despite the occurrence of acute spikes in workload.

This study investigates the effectiveness of blood flow restriction (BFR) training in maintaining athletic performance during a taper phase in basketball players. The taper phase aims to reduce external load while maintaining training intensity. Seventeen experienced basketball players were randomised into two groups: a placebo group (n = 8, 22.0 ± 2.1 years, mean ± SD) and BFR group (n = 9, 21.1 ± 1.5 years). The training schedule included strength trainings, team trainings, individual skill sessions and competitive games. During the 4-week taper period, lifting volume was reduced while either maintaining (placebo) or reducing (BFR) lifting load. The BFR group lifted with 60% arterial occlusion pressure at 25-30% of their 1RM, whereas the placebo group trained at 80% of their 1RM with BFR cuffs inflated to only 20%. Compared to the placebo group, BFR participants improved 5 m (-1.4 ± 1.5% mean ± 95% CI p = 0.03) and 10 m (-1.1 ± 0.5%, p =  <0.01) sprint performance along with barbell back squat (9.6 ± 8.0%, p = 0.013) and countermovement jump (1.1 ± 0.8%, p = 0.0035). BFR during the taper phase enabled a reduction in lifting load with no reduction in subsequent performance measures.

This case report describes the acceleration of an Olympic decathlete’s return to competition induced via high-frequency Blood Flow Restriction (BFR) training. BFR has gained popularity as an innovative rehabilitation method for promoting muscle repair and adaptation through anabolic and regenerative pathways when high mechanical loading is not possible. A 26-year-old elite decathlete with nine years of international experience sustained a Grade 2b strain of the semimembranosus and semitendinosus (a 9 mm central tendon tear) during a hurdle sprint. The injury was confirmed via MRI two days post-injury. Grade 2b hamstring injuries with intramuscular tendon involvement commonly require up to 4 weeks of rehabilitation before full training can be resumed. With the athlete due to complete in an Olympic Games competition 17 days post-injury, an intensive BFR-assisted rehabilitation program was initiated. Over 12 consecutive days, the athlete completed 3–6 BFR sessions per day (20–30 min each) at 50% limb occlusion pressure, along with physiotherapy and pain-limited functional testing. BFR was applied passively for recovery, during conditioning, and in low-load strength sessions. By day 12, sprint velocity reached 95% maximum, and the athlete successfully completed the decathlon, with no adverse effects or reinjury. This case illustrates how high-frequency BFR-assisted rehabilitation may facilitate accelerated recovery from a hamstring injury, enabling an effective return to elite competition within condensed timelines.

The purposes of this study were to examine relationships between athlete self-report measures of wellness, mood, sleep, and performance indicators of a women's national basketball team during international competition (2023 FIBA Women’s Asia Cup). Physical and psychological wellness were recorded using a cloud-based athlete management system, mood was assessed using the 24-item Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS), and performance was evaluated by player self-assessment and the National Basketball Association’s (NBA) player efficiency score. Wellness indicators were rated at or either side of a normal rating (i.e., 3 on a 1–5 scale), as was self-rated performance. Mean sleep duration was 8:13 hours (± 1:13), with large individual differences in retiring time and sleep duration. Mood scores showed a general pattern of declining tension and vigour over the 14-day assessment period. Mood subscales predicted 49.0% of variance in wellbeing scores, 46.8% of variance in preparedness scores, and 26.0% of variance in player efficiency scores. Wellbeing indicators predicted 34.9% of self-rated performance variance and mood subscale scores predicted 27.7% of variance. These findings suggest that female athletes may be particularly susceptible to mood disturbances impacting performance and highlight the potential for targeted interventions, including stress management and sleep optimization, to mitigate these stressors and support mental wellbeing. These strategies may enhance both psychological health and athletic performance during the high stress demands associated with international competition.

Purpose : This study aimed to comprehensively investigate the global implementation of flywheel training (FT) by basketball strength and conditioning (S&C) coaches in various contexts, encompassing daily practice, games, and sessions. Methods : Survey data were collected from 117 basketball S&C coaches who participated in a 24-question online survey. The survey was structured into 6 key areas, including country and competition, S&C coach context, training methodology, flywheel and competition, postactivation performance enhancement, and recovery. Results : Notably, all respondents emphasized the necessity of a familiarization period with flywheel technology, with a substantial 96% indicating that FT yielded improved player performance on the court. The predominant mention was the conical pulley system. During the season, the prevalent approach involved integrating FT into training twice a week, allocating <15 minutes per session, often in conjunction with traditional strength training. A diverse array of lower-body closed kinetic chain exercises were reported, encompassing squats, decelerations, and backward lunges. Intriguingly, FT implementation on match days was unlikely (77%), with the primary aims cited as injury prevention (34%) and enhancing players’ strength levels during various phases of the regular season (27%). Conclusions : Recognizing its inherent limitations, this descriptive study provides valuable contextual insights and practical applications for professional basketball practitioners grappling with the utilization of FT.

The global outbreak of Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) resulted in governing bodies suspending professional sports leagues, including the National Basketball Association (NBA) and notably the International Olympic Committee (2020 Tokyo Olympic Games). As competitions resumed, performance staff shifted their focus to preparing athletes for a safe return to competition. This article provides novel and unique international perspectives on preparing basketball players for competition during COVID-19 lockdown outlining lessons learned from the NBA, FIBA Asia Cup, and Olympic Games. Reflections are provided unpacking central themes related to (a) the impact of COVID-19 on physiological and psychological domains; (b) strength and conditioning methods and nutritional strategies used in the (re)training process; and (c) situation-specific interventions and educational strategies related to psychological well-being. Collectively, performance staff responsible for the preparation of basketball players during COVID-19 must consider additional health and performance support to ensure physical and psychological readiness to complete without negatively impacting physical development.

Over the past ten years there has been a dramatic rise in female sport participation and accompanying female professional national leagues across multiple sports, yet research has not followed suit. Although there are known variations between female and male physiology, training protocols in female sport are predominantly underpinned by research undertaken in male athletes. The hormonal variability experienced by women across the menstrual cycle, as well as the menstrual cycle variability between women, may contribute to the complexity of conducting rigorous physiological studies, leading to a paucity of robust sports-specific research that can be confidently applied to female athletes. Moreover, barriers exist in female sport that potentially limit the ability to conduct research, including the lack of full-time programs and limited resources. Recently, there has been increased interest in the potential effects of fluctuations in the female sex hormones, progesterone and oestrogen, on sport performance across different phases of the menstrual cycle. However, current research evaluating the menstrual cycle and physical performance (such as strength, speed, aerobic fitness, and athletes' perception of their performance) have shown inconsistent results. Additionally, methodological design across studies has shown little consistency, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions, which potentially prevents female athletes optimising their physical and sporting performance. It further impacts coaches and sports science researchers in their ability to provide appropriate training recommendations and educational opportunities. It is important to progress in female athlete research with an understanding of how the unique physiology of female athletes may influence their ability to physically perform in their respective sport, which requires representation in sports science research. This paper will provide an overview on current evidence and limitations within menstrual cycle research and provide considerations and directions for future research in this space within team sports.

The use of inertial devices in sport have become increasingly common. The aim of this study was to examine the within-day validity and reliability of a relatively new inertial measurement unit at measuring basketball movement parameters. Eighteen well-trained basketball players completed several individual performance tests including linear running and change of directions, acceleration, and decelerations, jumping and impacts to measure the validity and reliability of the microtechnology. The players also completed a specific test called the Basketball Exercise Simulation Test (BEST) to investigate whether the microtechnology could accurately detect more dynamic movements. Pearsons’s correlations were determined linking assessments of the practical measures taken from the inertial measurement unit to criterion measures. Testing revealed good validity between the microtechnology and criterion measures with the 20 m run test at various velocities (6 km.h-1, 12 km.h-1, 18 km.h-1, 24 km.h-1, maximal speed km.h-1 (mean bias <5%). However, total distance, body collisions, accelerations and decelerations showed lower validity (mean bias >10%). Total distance, number of sprints, number of sprints >15 km.h-1, number of decelerations >3m.s-2, number of accelerations and decelerations showed very large to nearly perfect reliability (ICC = 0.88 – 0.99). Whereas, relative distance (m.min-1), maximal speed (km.h-1), total number of accelerations (>3 m.s-2), total number of jumps, average heart rate showed high reliability (ICC 0.77 – 0.87). These results demonstrate the units were able to accurately detect most basketball movement patterns correctly with good repeatability.

In the profession of strength and conditioning (S&C), there is a need for a standardised, comprehensive framework that can allow for the alignment of international certifications, qualifications, and standards. This need stems from the lack of clarity surrounding the awarding levels of different governing bodies and organisations worldwide, as well as the increased connectedness of international sport and physical activity. Central to such a framework is understanding the current issues affecting S&C coaches,1 current professional standards and guidelines,2 and remuneration structures.3,4 As the sole dedicated international accreditation body, the International Universities Strength and Conditioning Association (IUSCA)5 carried out market research analysis and stakeholder engagement with regional and international educational authorities (Ofqual, European Commission, UNESCO, USDE, CHEA, TEQSA, ASQA) to develop a global framework for the rating and awarding of S&C courses, certifications, and qualifications.

Previous research has indicated that region of origin may influence the anthropometric and performance characteristics of an individual. The aim of this study was to determine the anthropometric and performance characteristics of Papua New Guineans and examine the relationship with the region of origin. 1176 Papua New Guinean athletes (666 males/510 females) aged between 14 and 39 years old completed anthropometric testing (height, seated height, arm span, body mass, body mass index), performance testing (sit and reach, medicine ball throw, vertical jump, Illinois agility, 5m/20m sprint, 60 second push-up/sit-up, multi-stage fitness test) and a heritage questionnaire (participant’s place of birth). Participants that met required criteria were categorised by ages groups (15-17 years, 18-20 years, 21-25 years and 26-30 years), sex (male and female) and by birth province (National Capital District, Morobe, Central, Sandaun, East Sepik, East New Britain, West New Britain and Milne Bay) before statistical analysis. Significant differences between birth provinces of participants were found for all tested anthropometric and performance characteristics (p<0.05), except for the leg length and Illinois agility test. Significant differences (p<0.05) were also found for all but one (body mass index) tested characteristics between the two sexes. Analysis of age indicated a significant difference for tested characteristics between age groups (p<0.05). Further analyses revealed that while birth province had an effect on some characteristics, sex and age demonstrated a significant and larger influence. Consequently, whilst there may be an association between the region of origin and anthropometric and performance characteristics of Papua New Guinean athletes, other variables such as sex and age also significantly influence anthropometric and performance characteristics.

It is a common belief amongst strength and power athletes that nutritional supplementation strategies aid recovery by shifting the anabolic/catabolic profile toward anabolism. Factors such as nutrient quantity, nutrient quality, and nutrient timing significantly impact upon the effectiveness of nutritional strategies in optimizing the acute responses to resistance exercise and the adaptive response to resistance training (i.e., muscle growth and strength expression). Specifically, the aim of this review is to address carbohydrates (CHOs), protein (PRO), and/or amino acids (AAs) supplementation strategies, as there is growing evidence suggesting a link between nutrient signaling and the initiation of protein synthesis, muscle glycogen resynthesis, and the attenuation of myofibrillar protein degradation following resistance exercise. Collectively, the current scientific literature indicates that nutritional supplementation strategies utilizing CHO, PRO, and/or AA represents an important approach aimed at enhancing muscular responses for strength and power athletes, primarily increased muscular hypertrophy and enhanced strength expression. There appears to be a critical interaction between resistance exercise and nutrient–cell signaling associated with the principle of nutrient timing (i.e., pre-exercise, during, and post-exercise). Recommendations for nutritional supplementation strategies to promote muscular responses for strength and athletes are provided.

ABSTRACT Background Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a connective tissue autoimmune disease that results in significant reduction in physical function and quality of life. Exercise may offer health benefits in people with autoimmune disease, yet approximately 50% of people with SSc are physically inactive and experience a wide array of barriers that may impede their exercise engagement. Currently, there are no exercise recommendations or guidelines for this population. In this qualitative study, we explore and describe barriers and facilitators to exercise in adults with SSc, aiming to provide person-centerd exercise recommendations for people with SSc. Methods Adults with SSc were purposefully recruited to represent diversity in disease type, duration, and manifestations. Three online focus groups were conducted to explore barriers and facilitators to exercise in people with SSc, transcribed, and thematically analyzed. Results Twenty-three adults with SSc (mean age 59 ± 11 years, 91% female) participated. Four themes emerged: (a) disease-related and general barriers to exercise, (b) perceived change in personal exercise capacity postdiagnosis, (c) beneficial effects of exercise, and (d) preference for modified supervised exercise. Conclusion SSc imposes disease-related barriers that, combined with general barriers, impede exercise engagement. People with SSc understand that exercise is potentially beneficial. Key recommendations and advice to counter these barriers include (a) ensuring a comfortable temperature to exercise, (b) using modified equipment (e.g., adjustable weighted straps), (c) individually supervising and modifying exercise as required, and (d) keeping people with SSc accountable and motivated to exercise.